GUIDE 

TO THE 

TEACHING 

OF 
SPELLING 



li 



Plttman 




Class L B I 5 7f 

Book i:^ 

GojpghtN" 



COP««GHT DEPOSIT. 



A GUIDE TO THE 
TEACHING OF SPELLING 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



A GUIDE 



TO THE 



TEACHING OF SPELLING 



BY 



HUGH CLARK PRYOR 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

NORTHERN NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

ABERDEEN, SOUTH DAKOTA 

AND 

MARVIN SUMMERS PITTMAN 

PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE 

YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1921 

All rights reserved 



PSINTBD IN THE UNITED STATES OF AHEBIOA 



,-,^^'^' 
^^'\ 



COPYKIGHT, 1911, 

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 192 1. 



SEP 22 1921 



Norbiooti iPre00 

J. S. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



g)CI.A622914 



PREFACE 

The primary purpose of this book is to help teachers 
to improve the quahty of their teaching of spelHng. 
While it has been written with the problems of the in- 
experienced teacher foremost in mind, it is believed 
that it may be of substantial value to experienced teachers 
as well. Simplicity of expression and natural sequence 
in arrangement are very important to busy, practical 
teachers. An earnest effort has been made throughout 
the book to keep these factors in mind. 

The authors wish to express their appreciation to the 
following persons for criticism and suggestion : Frederick 
G. Bonser, Teachers College, Columbia University ; J. T. 
Calhoun, State Rural Schools, Jackson, Mississippi ; J. A. 
Churchill, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, 
Oregon ; Frank L. Clapp, University of Wisconsin ; W. S. 
Dakin, State Inspector of Schools, Hartford, Connecti- 
cut; E. S. Evenden, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity; Roland Fennimore, Superintendent of Schools, 
Bradley Beach, New Jersey; John M. Foote, Depart- 
ment of Education, Baton Rouge, Louisiana ; Ethel Gal- 
leher, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Michi- 
gan; J. R. Grant, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, 
Little Rock, Arkansas; C. C. Henson, Isidore Newman 
Manual Training School, New Orleans, Louisiana ; S. A. 
Leonard, Lincoln School, New York City; W. A. McCall, 



vi PREFACE 

Teachers College, Columbia University; Charles M. 
Reinoehl, Supervisor of Rural Schools, Department of 
Public Instruction, Helena, Montana; E. N. Rhodes, 
State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts; W. W. 
Theisen, Director of Educational Measurements, Depart- 
ment of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin; Miss 
Charl O. Williams, County Superintendent, Shelby County, 
Memphis, Tennessee ; and the authors of the many books 
and articles on spelling which have been investigated in 
the course of this study, and which are listed in the 
bibliography. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Introductory Chapter ix 

PART I — FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 

Chapter I. Learning through Experiment. — A compari- 
son of the method of learning through repeated trial 
and error with the method of learning through scien- 
tific experiment. Description of some well-known 
experiments in spelling method. Summary. Ques- 
tions and exercises I 

Chapter II. The Psychology of Spelling. — Learning as 
connecting. Application of the law of habit forma- 
tion. The place of interest and motivation. Choice 
of words. Number of words. The recitation period 
as a study period. Summary. Questions and exercises 23 

PART II — METHODS, MATERIALS, AND 
DEVICES 

Foreword 33 

Chapter I. Methods of Teaching Spelling. — The Inci- 
dental Method. The Test-Drill Method. The 
Teaching-Study Method. The Content-Dictation 
Method. Summary. Questions and exercises . . 35 

Chapter II. Types of Spelling Books. — The logical type. 
The phonetic type. The psychological or language 
teaching type. The mixed type. Miscellaneous 
types. Summary. Questions and exercises . . 52 
vii 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

FAGB 

Chapter III. Standards by Which to Measure Spelling 
Books. — Usefulness of the words. Value of the text 
from the instructional and the informational view- 
points. Provision for correct habit formation. Use 
of phonetic principles. Quality of devices. Use of 
similarities and contrasts. Summary. Questions and 
exercises 69 

Chapter IV. Special Lists and How to Use Them. — 
Jones' "One Hundred SpeUing Demons" — Pryor's 
" Suggested Minimal SpelUng List. " Summary. Ques- 
tions and exercises 76 

Chapter V. Spelling Lists Made by the School. — The 
Brown County Spelling Book — Its value in the moti- 
vation of other work. Summary. Questions and 
exercises 99 

Chapter VI. Devices for Teaching Spelling. — Devices 
based on psychological principles. Value and danger 
of games. Picture presentation. Visualizmg the 
words. Guessing games. Rewards for success. Old 
games. Spellmg matches. Summary. Questions and 
exercises 

Chapter VII. Some Questions Often Asked by Teachers. — 
The incorrigible speller. The careless speller. Tests, 
when and how to give them. The use of the dic- 
tionary. Summary. Questions and exercises . .128 

Bibliography 137 



112 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 

Is our spelling poor? Yes, it is poor but it is not so 
bad as is ordinarily supposed. We use a small number 
of words in our wi-iting. Not more than one thousand 
are necessary to satisfy most of our daily needs. One 
hundred of these common words are misspelled many 
more times, as a group, than the other nine hundred; 
so frequently, in fact, that Professor Jones has properly 
called them the "One Hundred Spelling Demons." 

It has been supposed by some persons that our fore- 
fathers spelled better than we do. This belief arose 
from the fact that a great deal was said about the good 
spellers who won in the old spelling bees and very little 
about the "ninety and nine" who were "spelled down." 

In 1906 some old spelling examination papers which 
had been written in 1846 were discovered in the attic 
of one of the school buildings in Springfield, Massachu- 
setts. The words were pronounced to the eighth grade 
children and they did much better than their forefathers 
had done sixty years before in the same school. This 
old Springfield list has been pronounced to eighth grade 
children all over the country, always, so far as the writers 
know, with the same result: children of the present 
generation have shown their superiority as spellers over 
the Springfield children of 1846. 

While our shortcomings have been overemphasized, 

ix 



X INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 

it is nevertheless true that our spelling is poor. We 
are poorer spellers than we ought to be because we do not 
study intelligently. We do not, as we should, keep 
the law of habit formation clearly in mind in teaching 
and learning spelling. 

A great deal can be done by the teacher to secure better 
spelling by proper motivation of the work. The words 
selected should be so closely connected with the real 
problems of daily life that the child cannot fail to appre- 
ciate their usefulness. While the teacher's judgment 
as to what words should be used is better than the child's, 
greater enthusiasm and interest may be aroused by having 
the pupils help occasionally in making the spelling lists. 

Finally, if we are to secure permanent improvement, 
we must seek to develop in each child a spelling con- 
sciousness or ability to detect errors, and a spelling con- 
science which will not permit him to pass by a mis- 
spelled word. 

Very few teachers have a good classroom technique 
in the teaching of spelling. As a rule, the pupils are 
told to "study the next lesson" and, too often, no at- 
tempt is made to point out, or to have the pupils point 
out, the pitfalls to be avoided. It has been found that 
the best results are secured when the teacher studies 
and plans the spelling lesson carefully, in advance, and 
leads the pupils to see the difficulties in each word. As 
a result of various experiments that have been made, the 
modern teacher is able to make spelling assignments 
more wisely than was the teacher of even a decade ago. 
In a later chapter, an effort will be made to explain some 
of the principles of good classroom procedure. 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER xi 

During recent years, so many experiments have been 
made, so many spelling texts and lists have been pre- 
pared, and so much of a general nature has been written 
on the subject of spelling, that the inexperienced teacher 
may well be confused. 

The authors have attempted to evaluate this material 
and to present, particularly to the inexperienced teacher : 
first, a simple interpretation of the best known experi- 
ments; second, a discussion of the fundamental psy- 
chological principles involved in the teaching of spell- 
ing; third, a review of the best methods; fourth, an 
appraisement of the various types of spelling texts that 
are now being used; fifth, a discussion of the various 
lists which have been made with suggestions as to the 
making of others; sixth, a classification and discus- 
sion of classroom devices ; and last, the answers to a few 
of the questions often asked by teachers. 



A GUIDE TO THE TEACHING 
OF SPELLING 

PART I 

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 

CHAPTER I 

LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 

There are in general two ways of acquiring 
better methods of working — by repeated trial and 
error and by conscious, purposeful experiment. Both 
have been in use for ages, but the former has been 
the more common. The trial and error method has 
proved to be such a wasteful one that it has in- 
spired the saying, "Experience keeps a dear school.'^ 
Scientific experiment has been used by fewer persons 
because it requires a clearer consciousness of a 
specific goal and greater patience, persistence, orig- 
inality, and initiative on the part of the user; 
but it is becoming more and more common as 
a method of learning the right way of doing 
things, and the trial and error method — the 
method of learning through experience alone — is 



2 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

falling more and more into disrepute among think- 
ing people. 

Teachers are a conservative folk and have clung 
to the old ways of doing things longer than doctors, 
lawyers, business men, and people in many walks 
of life; they have long learned through repeated 
trial and error ; hence, the experimental method of 
studying problems of teaching has had a hard time 
gaining the teachers' favor. At last, however, educa- 
tion has come to be recognized as a science and even 
the youngest teacher sees the benefits to be gained 
through careful testing of methods and of results. 

The first experiments in the field of spelling were 
crude and imperfect in many ways, but they should 
be mentioned here because they aroused interest 
and paved the way for the many helpful experi- 
ments that have been performed in more recent 
years. Let us consider a few of the early efforts 
along this line. 

EXPERIMENTS 

The first person to do any experimental work 
worthy of notice in connection with spelling was a 
physician. Dr. J. M. Rice. He became interested 
in education because of his work with children. 
Finally, he became convinced that schoolmen did 
not know a great deal about their own work, that 
they were really proceeding by the use of the trial 
and error method, and that they were not in the 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 3 

habit of testing their results. He decided to make 
an experiment; and with that experiment a new- 
era in the teaching of spelHng began. 

Dr. Rice's experiment was a test in spelhng. In 
1894, he made out a Hst of words and had them 
pronounced to school children all over the ,^^^^ j^^ 
country to find out how well they could Rice Con- 
spell. This first test consisted of words ® 
which were pronounced in lists. Dr. Rice was not 
very well satisfied with the way in which the teachers 
conducted the tests, so he decided to direct more 
specifically the giving of the second test. This time 
he had the teachers read sentences containing the 
words to be spelled. Finally, he tested the pupils' 
ability by having them write compositions in which 
the misspelled words were counted. He found that 
the pupils did better in the second test than in the 
first and in the third than in the second. It was not 
surprising that the best results were obtained in the 
last test because the children selected their own 
words and, naturally, they chose only those which 
they were sure that they could spell. 

These tests were not conducted very carefully, 
but they did teach teachers and students of education 
a great deal. Dr. Rice arrived at some very startling 
conclusions. He claimed that the kind of school a 
pupil attended had little to do with his spelling ability, 
that the pupils in progressive schools did no better, 
on the whole, than pupils in unprogressive schools. 



4 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

He claimed that the child who came from a good home 
did no better, on the average, than the child from a 
poor home, and that the foreign-born child spelled 
just as well as the native-born American. He said 
that pupils learned no better under one method of in- 
struction than under any other, and that pupils who 
spent only fifteen minutes a day on spelling did just 
as well as those who spent half an hour or more. He 
found that the older pupils did better than the younger 
ones. The personality of the teacher seemed to 
him to play an important part in the pupils' prog- 
ress in spelling ; that is, good, strong teachers got 
better results, on the whole, than those with weak 
personalities. 

Dr. Rice's findings met with a storm of protest, 
opposition, and abuse on the part of school people, 
but he did a great deal to make them think, and 
from that time on long-established custom counted 
less and judicious experiment more in education. 

Let us consider Dr. Rice's conclusions from our 
point of view. We know, now, that pupils in 
progressive schools spell better than those in 
unprogressive schools. We know that the personal- 
ity of the teacher in and of itself cannot produce 
better results in spelling, except in so far as it makes 
for greater satisfaction and makes the pupil work 
harder. Pupils do as well in short periods, of fifteen 
minutes for example, as in longer periods. The 
method of teaching does have a good deal to do with 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 5 

the results. There is a difference of opinion as to 
the effect of age on speUing abihty, but the general 
opinion is that accelerated pupils, or those ahead 
of their grade, do best. 

The next experimenter in spelling was Assistant 
Superintendent 0. P. Cornman of the Philadelphia 
pubhc schools. He was of the opinion that incidental 
the incidental method of teaching spelling, Spelling 
i.e., teaching it in connection with other subjects, 
secured just as good results as a regular spelling 
drill. He compared the records of many Philadel- 
phia schools which had used the incidental with those 
which had used the drill method. He also com- 
pared the records in schools which had used both 
methods. The records for fifty schools for a period 
of three years showed very little advantage for 
the drill method. Cornman concluded that the 
time devoted to drill did not have any great effect 
on the results, that the incidental method was a 
time saver, and that the average teacher could get 
no better results than those shown at Philadelphia 
at that time. 

There are serious objections to Commands con- 
clusions. To begin with, the incidental method is 
not a time saver, because the time is really taken 
from those other subjects with which spelling is 
taught. The weak pupil suffers more than the strong 
one when the incidental method is used because 
of his lack of initiative and independence. We 



6 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

know now that there is a good deal of difference in 
the kind of drill and that good drill does get good 
results. The chances are that the drill method 
used in Philadelphia at that time was not good. A 
later experiment shows the results to be obtained 
by careful drill. 

In 1910, Mr. J. E. W. WaUin made a study of the 
records of three schools in Cleveland, Ohio, where a 
Drill S^^^ ^^'^^^ method was in use. Spelling 

Method had been as poor in Cleveland as in other 
cities. Finally, an effort at reform was 
made because the public demanded it ; and a special 
drill method was worked out. The plan was to 
emphasize two words in each lesson. These words 
were reviewed the following day and again a week 
later. After eighty new words had been taught, 
they were reviewed again for a test. At the end of 
the year, all new words were reviewed for the 
annual spelling contest. The next year they were 
taken up in connection with new words. Al- 
together, each word was presented five times in 
two years. This method has made Cleveland 
famous for the spelling ability of her children. 

Mr. Wallin wished to get light on five questions : 
(1) "What has the age of the pupil to do with spell- 
ing ability?" (2) '^What is the spelling ability of 
boys as compared with girls?" (3) '^Do pupils 
learn spelling more easily in one grade than in 
another?" (4) "Do pupils spell as well when they 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 7 

write words in sentences as they do when the words 
are pronounced separately?" (5) "How does the 
incidental method of spelling compare in efficiency 
with the drill method ?'' 

He concluded that "on time" pupils spelled 
better than those who were behind or ahead of their 
grades ; that is, normal fifth grade or fourth grade 
or sixth grade pupils spelled better, as a rule, than 
those who were retarded or accelerated. Girls 
spelled better than boys in most cases. Words 
were spelled almost as well when they were written 
in sentences as when they were written by them- 
selves. Wallin's greatest discovery was that good 
drill made for better spelling than the incidental 
method of teaching. 

This experiment was conducted much more care- 
fully than either Rice's or Cornman's and is much 
more trustworthy. It is generally agreed, now, 
that the drill method is better because it requires 
closer attention to the work being done. Teaching 
spelling in connection with reading, language, and 
other subjects scatters the attention and cannot 
fix very good spelling habits. 

The drill and incidental methods of teaching are 
general. Many experiments have been performed 
to test specific methods of teaching. For value of 
example, homonyms, such as to, too, and Grouping 
two; heat and heet, choir and quire, present a puz- 
zling problem. Should they be taught together or 



8 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

separately ? Principal H. C. Pearson of the Horace 
Mann School in New York City decided that he 
would find out. In 1911 he made some careful 
tests and found that all grades except the fifth in 
his school did better when the words were taught 
together. Another experiment, in one of the Mont- 
clair, New Jersey, schools, showed that all except 
the fifth and seventh grades did better when the 
homonyms were taught together. More proof is 
needed before the question can be decided. 

The method of teaching homonyms separately 
seems to be most generally accepted among teachers. 
If confusion results, as in the case of hare and hear, 
or other homonyms, Bagley suggests that, in order 
to break up the bad habits, it is "necessary to bring 
the mechanical process into the focus of conscious- 
ness and then replace it with another process. '^ 

Studley and Ware, authors of " Common Essentials 
in Spelling, '' are of the opinion that homonyms 
should be taught separately. Thorndike, one of 
the greatest authorities on matters of this sort, is 
not sure whether homonyms should be taught to- 
gether or separately. 

Some authors of spelling books group words. 
Grouping homonyms seems logical from the results 
of the experiments just described, but should we 
use other schemes for grouping? For example, 
should words like linear, lineage, lineal, lineament be 
grouped together in a textbook? C. H. Wagner 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 9 

tried out this plan and found that pupils improved 
much more rapidly when the spelling words were 
grouped than when no such device was used. An- 
other scheme is to group words around some common 
interest ; for example, names of flowers, of rivers, of 
mountains, of agricultural products, or of birds. 
This seems to produce better results than jumbling 
unrelated words together in the same list. The 
first grouping scheme must be helpful because 
there are more repetitions of the same element than 
would be the case if the words were in separate 
lessons, and this fixes the correct spelling habit. 
When the second scheme of grouping is used, 
the pupil's interest is aroused and he gives closer 
attention. We know that this produces better 
results. 

The kind of method to be used depends on a great 
many different things. One cannot teach primary 
pupils in the same way that intermediate or 
grammar grade pupils are taught. Boys cannot 
always be taught in the same way as girls. Johnnie 
cannot always be taught in the same way as Henry ; 
and, in fact, Johnnie himself cannot always be 
taught in the same way to secure the best results. 
The teacher must study her pupils and decide 
for herself what method is needed to fit each 
case. More will be said about methods later on, 
however, and the subject need only be mentioned 
here. 



10 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Another question which often troubles the teacher 
is this : Should words be spelled orally or written ? 
Written vs Writing the word "in the air" with the 
Oral finger cannot have much value because 

^® ^°^ the pupil cannot see what he has done. 
According to Horn, going through the form of 
writing on the top of the desk or on paper has been 
found to be better. The best plan of all is to have 
the pupils actually write. Young pupils have con- 
siderable difficulty with the writing itself, so it is 
better for them to use the oral method until they 
have learned to write without having to worry 
about the form of the letters. No doubt some pupils 
learn best by writing, others by spelling orally, and 
others by seeing words written. Just which way is 
best must be worked out for each pupil. Since we 
spell words more frequently when we are writing 
than at any other time, it is a good plan to have all 
pupils begin writing as early as possible. 

How shall the words be presented? Dr. J. W. 
Baird of Clark University performed some experi- 
ments to determine the best way to present speUing 
words. It was found that when words were only 
pronounced, 6.48 per cent were misspelled; when 
heard and spelled aloud by the pupil, 4.66 per cent 
were misspelled ; when they had simply been shown 
to the pupil, 2.60 per cent were misspelled; when 
they had been seen and spelled aloud by the pupil, 
2.27 per cent were misspelled ; and when they had 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 11 

been seen, used, spelled, and written by the pupil, 
1.00 per cent were misspelled. This shows that 
the greater the number of associations formed, the 
better the pupil learns. In cases where the word 
has been seen, used, spelled, and written, the word 
and its sound, its meaning, its visual image, and 
the muscular sensation of writing it, are all con- 
nected or associated. As has been said, some pupils 
learn more readily by one method than another. 
It is well to help the individual to find just which 
method is best for him to use and to let him use it. 
The satisfaction which results makes the learning 
easier. The teacher should encourage learning 
through the different senses. 

No doubt, the teacher often wonders how she 
should emphasize difficult letters or parts so as to 
make sure that the pupils will not mis- special 
spell them. How should the first ''a" in Emphasis 
separate be impressed on the pupil's mind ? part of 
Different devices have been suggested, ^^^^ 
such as writing it in red or some other color, insert- 
ing a capital ^'A,'' writing the letter more heavily 
than the otheVs, or doing something else to make it 
stand out clearly. W. T. Taylor thought of writing 
a spelling book with all the "crucial letters," as 
he called them, printed in red. He tried out his 
plan by having one group of pupils study lists of 
words printed in ordinary black type, and another 
group study the same lists with troublesome letters 



12 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

printed in red, nothing being said about the purpose 
of the red letters. The pupils who used the black 
lists did better than the others. Such a device is 
not particularly valuable because we cannot pick out 
the letter or group of letters which cause difficulty 
to all pupils. The first ''a" in separate may cause 
difficulty to one pupil while another will have no 
difficulty with ^^a" and make an error m another 
part of the word. 

Do rules help in the teaching or learning of 
spelling? Rules are nearly always too difficult for 
Value of elementary pupils to apply because they 
Rules cover relatively few words and there are 

many exceptions. Naturally, they do help if the 
pupil knows the rule and remembers to which words 
it applies. A common example is the rule for the 
use of ie and ei; "^ before e, except after c, or 
when sounded like a as in neighbor and weigh.'' 
There are so many things to think of in the appH- 
cation of this rule and it is so easy to forget, that it 
seems more economical to spend the time needed 
to fix the habit of using the rule in the learning of 
spelling words. Cook and O'Shea, Suzzallo, and 
other authorities agree on this point. 

Will the adoption of simplified spelling help? 
During the past decade in particular, there has 
Simplified been a great increase in the interest in 
Spelling simpHfied spelling. There has been a 
great deal of controversy regarding the question 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 13 

as to whether simplified speUing will really help 
much in doing away with our spelling difficulties. 
Some authorities say that it will, but they are 
contradicted by others whose opinions have just 
as much weight. Miss Shaw, who has made a 
study of the problem, says that ^^ simplified spelling 
has, for the present generation at least, greatly 
increased bad spelling.'^ It has been argued by 
some persons that simplified spelHng would make the 
learning of our language easier for foreigners be- 
cause so many of them, especially the southern 
Europeans, have a phonetic language. A distin- 
guished American scholar of foreign birth, speaking 
for foreigners in general, has advanced the opinion 
that an extensive simplification of our spelHng, while 
lightening the burden of spelling and pronunciation, 
might so obscure the historic roots of many words 
as greatly to increase the student's difficulty in 
gaining their meaning. Our spelling has never 
been consistent, but it has been improving for 
many years. Such authorities as Benjamin Ide 
Wheeler and Professor Brander Matthews believe 
that, as a rule, our peculiarly spelled words should 
be spelled more simply than they are. Most 
teachers agree with them. 

Let us consider a concrete case. The simplified 
form of through is " thru.'' What would be the effect 
of introducing the new form unless it were used 
in all books, newspapers, and other periodicals? 



14 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

There would be a great confusion because school 
children who are learning to spell would be meeting 
both forms. They would not be sure which one to 
use and would use them interchangeably or, perhaps, 
use even a "cross" between the two. We must re- 
member that through is not the only word for which a 
simplified form is suggested ; there are hundreds of 
others and the confusion would be multiplied by the 
number of simplified spellings introduced. Simpli- 
fication is desirable, but why should it not be intro- 
duced gradually as it has been in the past instead of 
by a sudden general reform? If a few simplified 
forms were introduced at a time, teachers would be 
able to fix the right spelling habits and to watch 
for evidence of backsliding. 

So far the evidence for or against simplified spell- 
ing has been on the side of experience. Little experi- 
mental work of a serious nature has been done. We 
must have experiments to test the assertions which 
we have been making so strenuously before we can 
go ahead safely with our simplification of words. 

Does it help to syllabify words which the pupil 
is to learn to spell? 

A good many spelling books make use of this 
device by printing the words in syllables, thus appeal- 
-. J , ing to the children who get their impres- 
Syllabi- sions mainly through the eye. Several 
cation persons have tried to find out by experi 
ment just how helpful this method is. Miss Abbott 



LEARNING TFIEOUGH EXPERIMENT 15 

found it helpful to adults. Professor Heilman of 
the Colorado State Teachers' College tried the 
experiment of having one division each of the fourth, 
fifth, and seventh grades study syllabified words 
while the other division studied unsyllabified words. 
He gave three tests to discover the progress of the 
children and found that syllabication helped the 
fourth graders most and the seventh grade pupils 
least. An experiment by Professor Horn of the 
University of Iowa did not show any advantage 
for this kind of syllabifying. 

Clear pronunciation, which means enunciating each 
syllable clearly and correctly, helps toward correct 
spelling. This is especially true of words in which 
the pronunciation is a key. It hardly seems possible 
that the pronunciation could be of much assistance in 
the spelling of such words as thorough, rough, cough, 
slough, and the like. However, in many words the 
spelling is made easier by the pronunciation. These 
are the phonetic words which are spelled just as they 
sound and words with few or no silent letters. The 
spelling of words containing the syllables or, er, both 
pronounced alike, and words containing the syllables 
e, ea, ei, eo, ay, at, and a, all pronounced like e, is not 
helped much by pronunciation. The sound sh, in the 
words sure, ship, conscience, suspicion, ocean, nation, 
anxious, is not differentiated as to its spelling by 
the most careful pronunciation. But careless pro- 
nunciation never helped any one. 



16 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

A helpful way in which to make use of syllabication 
is to have the words separated into syllables after 
they are pronounced by the pupil. 

Should spelling be studied in the classroom or 
outside ? 

It was the custom for a long time for the teacher 
to make the assignment after the lesson for the day 
Super- was recited and to leave the pupils to 
vised vs. prepare their lesson by themselves as well 

Unsuper- ^ , i i . i , . , , 

vised as they could, either at home or m school. 

Study ^ good many teachers still do this in 
spite of the fact that it is a wasteful method. The 
teacher always knows more about the difficulties 
to be overcome in a spelling lesson than the pupils 
do. She is not doing her part if she does not make a 
careful assignment of the lesson, showing the pupils 
just what they should look out for and telHng them 
how to overcome the difficulties. A good assign- 
ment leaves the child well started in the prepara- 
tion of his lesson. 

Mr. Pearson of the Horace Mann School made an 
experiment to find out which was the better way to 
study. Each grade was divided into two classes. 
The pupils in one class studied by themselves in 
school or at home. Those in the other class studied 
in school under the teacher's supervision. In 
eight cases out of ten, the supervised study proved 
the more helpful. 

No doubt the reader is wondering by this time 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 17 

what is the best method to use. There are many 
methods which have been tried out more or less 
thoroughly but we cannot say that there vaiue of 
is a method. Professor Charters says that Emphasiz- 
the function of speUing teaching is to help ofde/of 
the child to form the habit of writing the *^® Letters 
letters m their correct order in words. There is no 
one who would not agree with this proposition. 
Since it is true, we must use all methods to this end. 
While it is necessary to adapt our methods to the 
age of the child, to the kind of words which are being 
taught; to the same pupil at different times, and to 
different individuals, we must keep in mind, all the 
time, the importance of writing the letters in the 
right order in any word. 

One of the writers of this text made an experiment 
several years ago to determine the effect of having 
pupils notice carefully the exact order of the letters 
in each of the words to be learned. Two fifth 
grades in Boulder, Colorado, were selected, with the 
assistance of the Superintendent, for the purpose 
of the experiment. The teachers were of nearly 
equal ability so far as the Superintendent was able 
to judge. The children in the two rooms were of 
about the same type, coming from good homes in 
the most desirable sections of the city. They were 
of about the same general ability so far as scholar- 
ship is concerned. It was found that one grade 
had an average in scholarship for the first quarter 



18 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

of 82.52 per cent and the other an average of 82.13 
per cent. Neither children nor teachers knew that 
an experiment was being performed until it was 
almost completed, when one of the teachers learned 
what was being done and was told the purpose of the 
experiment. 

The first class mentioned above will be called 
"5A" and the second '^5B.'' Both classes were 
taught the same words. "5A'' was taught in the 
usual manner, "5B'^ was taught to notice very 
carefully the order of the letters in the different 
words. The children in "5B'^ were asked to write 
their words, always, during the daily spelling lesson. 
The words were always pronounced clearly, and 
written on the board in syllables by the teacher. 
She always spelled by syllables as she wrote. Dur- 
ing the assignments emphasis was placed on the 
following points : 

(1) Silent letters, double letters, vowels having the 
same sound, as in or and er. 

(2) Common parts in different words. 

(3) Difficult combinations of letters. 

(4) Difference in pronunciation of such prefixes as ily 
el, al, ol, em and im, en and in. 

(5) Trying to recall how words were spelled after they 
had been erased. 

(6) Each pupil was to study in whatever way seemed 
best to him ; that is, he learned by looking at the words 
on the board, by spelling them silently, by writing them, 
or by a combination of these methods. 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 19 

The teacher was cautioned against : 

(1) Mispronouncing a word to give the pupil an idea 
as to how it should be spelled. 

(2) Using rules. 

(3) Mentioning possible mistakes such as the use of e 
in the word separate. 

(4) Running over time. 

(5) Making home assignments. 

A list of words from those to be studied was pro- 
nounced to both groups of children before the 
experiment began. The children in "5A" averaged 
50.55 per cent and those in "5B'^ averaged 48.58 
per cent. The advantage to begin with was with 
"5A." At the end of six weeks another test was 
given. The same words were used because the 
author wished to find just how much the children 
had improved. This time ''5A" averaged 83.39 per 
cent and ^'5B'' averaged 89.14 per cent. "5A" had 
gained 32.84 per cent while ''5B" had gained 40.56 
per cent or 7.72 per cent more. This seemed fairly 
good proof that adhering to a good method had 
been beneficial to "5B.'' Another fact which was 
noticed was that there was less variation among 
the pupils in "5B" after the six weeks' work than 
there was among the pupils of ''5A.'' The work in 
"5B" had been of more benefit to the poorest pupils 
than had that in "5A.'' 

During this test a careful record of attendance 
was kept for the two groups. Those in ''5B'' 



20 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

averaged 6.5 days' absence, while those in '^5A'' 
averaged only 2.7 days' absence. This was another 
evidence of the value of the method since it helped 
the pupils who had been absent a greater length of 
time to make a better record. 

Summary 

The two common ways of learning better methods have 
been by repeated trial and error and by scientific experi- 
ment. On account of their conservatism, teachers have 
clung to the former method longer than persons in other 
occupations, but the experimental method is gaining ground. 

The first experiments in education were crude, and 
spelling was no exception to the rule. Dr. Rice did con- 
siderable experimenting in spelling and discovered some 
startling facts. He was criticized and abused by con- 
servative educators but his work resulted in an interest 
in the experimental method. 

Cornman believed that as good results could be obtained 
by teaching spelling in connection with other subjects, 
incidentally, as by drill. His experience showed only a 
slight advantage for the drill method. 

Mr. Wallin, who made a much more careful study of the 
drill method in use in the Cleveland, Ohio, schools, found 
it much more effective than the incidental method. He 
found, also, that normal pupils spell better than those 
who are accelerated or retarded ; that girls, as a rule, spell 
better than boys; that words are spelled almost as well 
when they are written in sentences as when written 
separately. i 

A good many experiments have been made to solve 
special problems in the teaching of spelling. Pearson 
and others found that it was a little better to teach 



LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 21 

homonyms together than to teach them separately. 
Other authorities differ in opinion. We need more 
evidence before we can say just which method should be 
used. 

Wagner found that grouping words containing similar 
elements resulted in better spelling. 

Young pupils spell better, orally, than when they write, 
because in writing they have to think about the formation 
of the letters. It is wise, however, to introduce written 
spelling at an early age because it is more common than 
oral spelling. 

Taylor found that having difficult letters of words 
printed in colors did not help pupils to spell these words 
correctly. Such a device has little value, because it is 
impossible to pick out the parts of words which cause 
difficulty to all pupils. 

Authorities agree that it is better to spend the time 
in fixing the correct spelling habit than in trying to teach 
the pupil to spell words by rule. 

There is considerable difference of opinion, but no real 
experimental proof, regarding the value of simplified 
spelling. There is no good reason why our spelling should 
not be much better without simpHfication. Simplification 
might result in confusion unless introduced gradually. 

Syllabication of words in script or print makes learning 
easier, as a rule. Pronouncing by syllables is helpful to 
the pupil. 

It has been shown by experiment that study supervised 
by the teacher is more helpful than unsupervised study. 

We cannot say that there is a method of teaching 
spelling. There are many useful methods. One of the 
authors has demonstrated, experimentally, that emphasiz- 
ing the correct order of letters in words results in better 
speUing. All methods must be adapted to this end. 



22 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Name five persons who have made investigations 
or conducted experiments for the purpose of determining 
better methods of teaching spelhng. What was the dis- 
tinct contribution made by each? 

2. Which experiments discussed in this chapter might 
you helpfully repeat in your school? 

3. What are the benefits which you would derive from 
personally conducting experiments to help find out good 
methods of teaching spelling? 

4. Plan with three of your friends who teach the same 
grade that you do, to conduct a spelling investigation for 
a month and then compare your results with theirs. 

5. How can you test your pupils to see to what extent 
the difficulties of penmanship lessen their ability in 
spelling ? 



CHAPTER II 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 

It has been said that the psychologist is a person 
who tells what everyone knows in language which 
nobody understands. This must be the reason why 
some teachers become alarmed when they read the 
word '^ psychology^' in a title. 

The authors reaHze that they run a degree of 
risk in introducing a chapter on psychology, but it 
is necessary that every teacher should have ^ 

•^ "^ Learning 

in mind some of the fundamental psycho- is Con- 
logical principles if she is to make a success ^®^*"^s 
of teaching. An attempt will be made to use only 
such psychological terms and illustrations as any 
studious teacher can grasp. 

Professor Thorndike of Columbia University says 
"Learning is connecting, and man is the great 
learner primarily because he forms so many con- 
nections." These connections or bonds of which 
he speaks are made in the nervous system. They 
are formed whenever a child or an adult or any ani- 
mal which has a nervous system learns something. 
The connection may be between some situation out- 

23 



24 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

side the individual such as 2X2=1 on the black- 
board and the response 4 in the individual's mind ; 
it may be between the thought of the word separate 
which one wishes to spell and the correct writing of 
the word, or simply the thought of the correct 
spelling. There are many different kinds of con- 
nections between situations and responses, both 
inside and outside the classroom. A boy sees a 
baseball and thinks of the game, or he hears the 
school bell and thinks, "Well, it is time to stop play- 
ing marbles and learn that pesky geography lesson." 
The girl sees the dinner table after the family meal 
and the sight suggests the distasteful task of dish- 
washing, or she sees a display of hair ribbons and, 
forthwith, she thinks of the beautiful hair ribbon 
she received as a present on her last birthday. In 
these cases, seeing the baseball, hearing the school 
bell, seeing the dishes, or the display of ribbon, might 
have led to different responses. This is too fre- 
quently the case in spelling. Johnnie hears the 
word separate pronounced and he may write it 
seperate, seprate, seprat, sepert, or in any of a dozen 
different ways. In each case he has the wrong 
response to the situation, although the situation has 
not changed. 

This is where the work of the teacher comes in ; 
it is her duty to see that Johnnie makes the correct 
response every time, and that, finally, this response 
becomes automatic. She should make sure that 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 25 

no pupil has too much to learn or she will defeat 
the purpose of the spelling lesson. She should mo- 
tivate the work, or make it so interesting that the 
child will want to learn, and she should make such 
clear assignments and direct the study of them in 
such a way that improvement will be easy. 

Professor Bagley in his ''Classroom Management" 
states a very important law of psychology in a very 
concise way. This is the law of habit for- ^^^ ^^^ 
mation: " Focalization of consciousness of Habit 
upon the process to be automatized, plus ^^^ 
attentive repetition of this process, permitting no 
exceptions until automatism results." This law 
is so important in the formation of correct habits 
of any kind that its application needs to be made 
perfectly clear. Let us see how it applies to spelling. 
Suppose we have some particularly difficult word to 
teach. To begin with, the pupils must give the 
best attention. All disturbing influences must be 
shut out and the word to be learned must be in the 
center of the field of attention. The teacher picks 
out the difficult parts, one at a time, and emphasizes 
the correct forms. This is " f ocahzation of conscious- 
ness on the process to be automatized." The class 
or the individual pupil is called upon to repeat, 
attentively, the correct form. This fulfills the 
second part of the law. There is a little danger that 
this part of the process may be continued too long ; 
that is, that the pupil may waste his time in over- 



26 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

learning. Professor Thorndike thinks that this 
result need not be feared. We must be sure, how- 
ever, that the word is repeated often enough to in- 
sure correct speUing at all times ; and the task does 
not end here. Teachers must be constantly on the 
alert to guard against mistakes in order that they 
may be prevented or corrected. ^^ Permitting no 
exceptions to occur '^ is just as important as making 
a good start. If incorrect forms are permitted to 
creep in after the word has been correctly learned, 
bad spelling habits compete with the correct one 
and the teacher cannot be sure which habit will 
"come out on top.'^ 

Let us illustrate the application of the law of 
habit formation in another way. Suppose the 
teacher is teaching the word February. This word 
is often misspelled because it is mispronounced, 
Febuary. The teacher should pronounce the word 
carefully, ''Feb'-ru-a-ry,'' so that every syllable 
receives its value. If this is done, the word is 
half learned because every letter except, perhaps, y, 
stands out so clearly that the child ought to be able 
to spell this word correctly. Some child who is 
sure of the spelling might be called upon to spell 
the word at this time. This would help the child 
who learns best by hearing. Then the teacher might 
write or have some child write the word on the 
board, pronouncing and spelling it by syllables, thus 
helping the visualizers. Children who learn best 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 27 

by spelling the word to themselves, or by writing, 
should be encouraged to use either of these methods 
of learning. The word is presented to the children 
in several different ways; and some will make 
use of each way of learning. It is good psychology 
to proceed m this manner because one learns best 
when the material to be learned is presented through 
different senses. All this explanation has to do 
with focalization of consciousness on the process, 
in this case the forming of connections or bonds 
between the successive letters in such a way as to 
make sure that they will always be written in the 
right order whenever the pupil has occasion to use 
the word. Since the second S3dlable, ru, is so often 
misspelled, the teacher should make sure that the 
pupils focalize their attention on it. 

Next, a good deal of attentive repetition is neces- 
sary if the children are to learn the word in such a 
way as to be able to write it automatically ; that is, 
without having to stop to think about the spelling. 
Attentive repetition means that the pupil must 
spell the word carefully, making sure that all the 
letters are visualized, spoken, or written in the 
correct order. The better the child succeeds in 
shutting out all disturbing factors, the more quickly 
he learns. There should be enough repetition to 
fix the correct spelling. The child should be able 
to close his book and recall the word accurately. 
After the word has been learned, the teacher should 



28 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

make sure that it is reviewed at intervals in order 
to be certaiQ that the correct speUing is fixed. The 
length of the period between reviews may be made 
longer and longer, and, finally, the word may be 
considered learned. 

The third part of the law of habit formation em- 
phasizes ^^ permitting no exceptions to occur" until 
the process has become automatic. This means 
that the teacher must be continually on the alert 
to see that the pupil always spells the word as it 
should be spelled. It means, too, that the pupil 
must be on the alert, not only while the word is 
being learned, but also after it has been 
laid aside as learned. It should be re- 
peated, in this connection, that all pupils will not 
misspell words in exactly the same way. The 
teacher should specialize on the mistakes which 
occur, "making repairs where needed," as Thorn- 
dike says. 

In discussing attention and habit formation, we 
must not forget interest. Interest plays a big part 
in one's ability to learn. We learn most readily the 
lessons in which we are most interested. We do 
our best work in the subject in which we have the 
greatest interest, whether that subject be spellmg, 
arithmetic, grammar, or something else. In some 
cases the material which one is studying may be un- 
attractive, and uninteresting. After a time interest 
may develop, largely perhaps because of satisfaction 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 29 

in having accomplished something at a distasteful 
task. The teacher can do a great deal in arousing 
interest in spelling or any other subject. 

The ^'big word" to be remembered in this con- 
nection is ^^ motivation," which is simply another 
word for interest. By motivation we 
mean ^^That attack upon school work 
which seeks to make its tasks significant and pur- 
poseful for the child, by relating them to his childish 
experiences, questions, problems, and desires." ^ As 
applied to spelling, motivation means to make spell- 
ing appeal to the child's practical nature, to make 
him see that the subject has a value in everyday 
life. This may be done by having the pupil make 
up word lists, a subject which will be discussed later 
on, or b}^ showing him that by misspelling words 
in his letters he runs the risk of being misunderstood. 
The child's interest may be aroused by asking him 
to keep a personal list of the words which he misspells 
in order to see how rapidly he can reduce the number. 
Limiting the spelling list is one important means to- 
ward motivation. In the past we have been tempted 
to require the learning of too many words. Some 
spelling books contained as many as twelve to fif- 
teen thousand words, many of which would never 
be used during or after school life. The tendency, 
in recent years, has been to reduce this number to 
about four thousand or even less. When the child 

1 Wilson, H. B. and G. M., Motivation of School Work. 



30 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

sees that most of the words in the speUing lesson 
are those which he uses in his everyday affairs he 
is more incHned to study them, and when the teacher 
takes a vital interest in helping each child to over- 
come his difficulties the interest in spelling becomes 
greater. 

The question may be raised here as to what words 
-y^at should be included in the spelling list for 

Words any grade. This will be discussed in the 
second part of the book. 

The question as to how many words should be 
included in the Hst for each grade is a problem of 
HowM^ny psychology. It is generally recognized 
Words ^]^at young children are not able to learn as 
many new words each day as are the older children. 
Most authorities agree on about two new words 
as the best number for primary children and not 
more than five new words for grammar grade 
children. 

Another problem to be decided is that of how 
much time should be devoted to each lesson. It is 
The Red- generally conceded, now, that not more 
tation than fifteen minutes a day should be used 

study ' for spelling and that this should include 
Period ]3Qth study and recitation. Fifteen min- 
utes may seem like a short time, but it has been 
shown that schools which devote a longer time to 
the subject do not secure results which would justify 
the expenditure of the extra time. The schools of 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 31 

Cleveland, Ohio, the record of which in spelling has 
been discussed earlier in this book, have used rather 
less time for the subject of spelling than is used in 
the schools of other cities. 



Summary 

It is essential that every teacher should know some- 
thing about the psychological principles involved in the 
teaching of spelling. 

The fundamental principle is that "learning is connect- 
ing" and that the teacher's chief concern is to see that the 
right connections are always made by the pupil in learning 
the spelling of words. 

Other very important principles to be kept in mind are 
that the attention of the learner must be focused on the 
thing to be learned, that repetition must be attentive, 
and that no exceptions be permitted until correct spelling 
becomes a habit. 

Pupils learn most readily the things in which they are 
interested. Interest may be stimulated by the satisfaction 
which comes from the completion of a task. Sometimes 
it is necessary for the teacher to stimulate interest. This 
is called motivation. Elimination of all words except 
those in everyday use, showing the practical value of 
different words, and emphasis on the solution of individual 
spelling difficulties are all excellent means of motivation. 

Most authorities agree that from two to five spelling 
words should be taught each day, depending on the age 
of the pupils. 

It is generally conceded that not more than fifteen 
minutes a day should be spent in the study and recitation 
of the spelling lesson. 



32 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Questions and Exercises 

1. What are the essential elements of a spelling situa- 
tion ? When is a spelling response a satisfactory response ? 
What is the teacher's part in this connection? 

2. Quote from memory Bagley's statement of the law 
for the formation of a habit. Explain and illustrate each 
part of the statement. 

3. What is the distinction between ''motivation" as 
defined by Wilson and ^' sugar coating " as you under- 
stand that term? Which do you use in teaching spelling? 
Prove the correctness of your answer by illustrations. 

4. How many words do you ask your children to learn 
daily in each grade? Go over your assignments for the 
past week and see. 

5. Which of the investigations discussed in Chapter I 
justifies the authors in saying that fifteen minutes daily 
is sufficient time to devote to the subject of spelling? 
Give careful attention to this point for a few weeks and 
see if you agree. 



PART II 

METHODS, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES 
USED IN THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

FOREWORD 

In Part I of this book, we have studied the psycho- 
logical principles underlying the teaching of spelling. 
We have shown how, through careful experimenta- 
tion, these principles and their application to spelling 
were discovered. We have not attempted to give 
a summary of all the experiments that have been 
made. To have done so would have made this 
book more technical and more detailed than the 
purposes for which it is written would require or 
permit. We have presented only those experiments 
which we feel to be typical and pivotal in nature. 

From a study of this brief presentation of scientific 
investigations and from this short statement of the 
psychological principles which apply to spelling, 
we trust that the reader will have gained a point 
of view sufficiently broad to make a further study 
of this book easy. Not only this, but we hope that 
the reader will be inspired to further investigation 
and more extensive reading on this subject. The 

33 



34 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

literature dealing with spelling is now becoming 
not only abundant but scientifically accurate and 
detailed. 

In Part II we shall consider the methods of teach- 
ing spelling that are now used, the materials with 
which spelling is taught, and the classroom devices 
which teachers have found helpful. 

What are these methods? How do they differ? 

What are the raaterials used? What form do they 
take? 

What are the devices which classroom teachers have 
found helpful? 

A careful reading of Part II will reveal the answers 
to these questions. 



CHAPTER I 
METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 

THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROCEDURE 

There are at least four different modes of pro- 
cedure by which spelling is taught, now in use in 
the United States. These modes of procedure will 
be spoken of as ''methods of teaching spelling'' 
throughout this discussion. They are not distinctly 
separated; or mutually exclusive, but they are suffi- 
ciently distinct and exclusive for us to think of them 
as different methods. 

In this discussion we shall present the mode of 
procedure, the advantages claimed for it, and the 
objections urged against it, for each of the four 
methods discussed. 

It must be borne in mind that in all four methods 
repetition and drill are essential. The names applied 
to the methods in the following discussion arise, 
primarily, from the way in which the words are first 
presented to the pupil. 

THE INCIDENTAL METHOD 

As suggested in Chapter I, in our discussion of 
Commands experiment, the words which constitute 

35 



36 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

the spelling lessons when this method is in use 
are taken from the subject matter of other classes. 
The The words for the spelling for one day 

Sources of may be taken from the hygiene lesson for 
for the that same day. The next day, words 
SpeUing fj-^j^^ ^]^g history lesson may be selected. 
Agriculture, arithmetic, and all the other subjects 
may be used as sources of supply for the spelling. 
The written composition of the children is one of 
the most fertile sources from which words for the 
spelling lesson come. 

Were this method strictly applied, there would 
be no special and conscious attention to spelling as 
How the such. The children would be supposed 
SpeUing is to imbibe the spelling as they studied the 
Taught Qther subjects. No one, so far as we 
know, has carried the method to that extreme. 

What is actually done is to look through the 
lesson of some subject for the day and pick out a few 
words which are to be spelled by the members of 
the class when they come to recite that lesson. 
A few minutes of the recitation period are taken for 
emphasizing the spelling of the assigned words. 

Sometimes teachers select the words from one 
subject and then devote a special period of the day 
to the spelling class. This is far from being a pure 
type of this method of teaching spelling. It can 
be called '^ incidental'^ only because the words are 
selected from the assigned lessons of other subjects 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 37 

and are not taken from a spelling book especially 
designed for that purpose. 

When the words to be spelled are selected from 
lessons dealing with hygiene^ reading^ and other 
subjects that the child is studying, the Ad- 
words studied have real meaning to him. vantages 
They have a purposeful use for him on the same 
day on which he is studying them. 

One of the advantages urged for this method is 
that it saves time, but this claim does not seem to 
be valid if time is taken for drill, either at the time 
of the recitation of the subject from which the 
words are taken, or at a later time. The fact is 
that more time may be used because the teacher 
must select the words and the children must locate 
them in their books. When we include the time 
that is certain to be used in retelHng the children 
which words were assigned, we can see that the 
advantage claimed for this method is doubtful. 

Too often the words for special study are selected 
by chance or by caprice. If the teacher has not 
made special preparation for the assign- 
ment, she selects the words in a haphazard "'^^ ^°°^ 
manner. Hygiene happens to be the subject selected 
for the day and the words that her eye falls upon 
are : diphtheria, disinfectant, hypodermic, infectious, 
malignant. 

The probability is that the fifth grade class, to 
which these words are assigned, will rarely have an 



38 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

occasion to use them in written composition. This 
makes little difference. The words are hard; the 
teacher is rushed for time; the class must have 
words to study for spelling, and so these are selected 
for the lesson. 

The foregoing discussion suggests another objec- 
tion to this method. The average teacher does not 
know just which are the best words, the most 
needed words, that a child should study. To say 
this is to cast no reflection upon the average teacher. 
Relatively speaking, there are very few people who 
have made sufficient study of spelling to be even 
fairly certain of the words that should be taught 
to children at the different stages of their progress. 
Even those experts who feel that they have a good 
idea of the words which should be taught would not 
be able to select the words in this hasty and acci- 
dental way. To be able to form this body of opin- 
ion, the expert has had to take much time for care- 
ful investigation. What can we expect then of the 
meagerly equipped teacher who must select these 
words during the rush of a busy day of teaching? 

The efficiency of any plan or method of teaching 
spelling may be fairly well measured by the provi- 
sions that it includes for attentive repetition. The 
"Incidental Method" of teaching spelling and the 
accidental way in which the words are frequently 
selected make attentive repetition and systematic 
review practically impossible. 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 39 

If the Incidental Method is to be used, the 
teacher should inform herself very thoroughly as 
to the careful scientific studies that have been made 
of spelling. What others have discovered would 
then serve as a guide in the selection of the words 
which she makes for each grade. There is no doubt 
that a much higher degree of scientific knowledge and 
teaching skill is needed for the successful appHcation 
of this method than is required for other methods. 

THE TEST-DRILL METHOD 

Since Jones made his very illuminating study of 
the words that children actually use in written com- 
position, there has come into conscious xhe Origin 
use another plan of procedure that we andAppii- 
may properly designate as the Test-Drill the 
Method. The theory upon which this is ^^^^od 
based is that, since we know what words children 
actually do use, all that is necessary is to test the 
children to see if they can correctly spell all those 
words. If they can, then it becomes a wasteful 
expenditure of time for the children to study a 
spelling lesson each day. If they cannot, the teacher 
knows at once what words to drill upon and the 
pupil is made conscious of his own limitations. 

In applying this method the word Hst for the 
grade is taken and divided into groups. The chil- 
dren are tested upon each group of words at the 
beginning of the week, fortnight, or month, or what- 



40 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

ever interval the teacher decides to use. The test 
is given without any warning as to what is to be 
given, and the children spell without previous study 
on that particular list. The words that each child 
misses become his spelling list for the designated 
period. 

Let us illustrate : Four hundred and sixty-nine 
words constitute the Jones list for the third grade. 
This would be practically fifty-two words for each 
month of a term of nine months. Suppose that on 
the first Monday of each month the teacher tested 
her class on the fifty-two words in the group for 
that month. She might find that every member of 
the class could spell a few of the words. Half the 
class might spell half the words. A few members 
of the class might be able to spell eighty per cent 
of the words. Two or three members might be 
able to spell all the words. 

Those words that were spelled by all members of 
the class might be eliminated from the list for study 
for the month. The teacher would know at once 
the relative needs of each child. Each child would 
know exactly what words in the list for the month 
he could not spell. He would discover his own 
limitations and would be held in the class only so 
long as it was necessary to overcome those limita- 
tions. 

When this method is used the teacher should 
apply the process of elimination to her class. She 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 41 

should do this by taking a few words each day for 
study and drill. Those words that were misspelled 
by the greatest number should be selected jj^^ ^^ 
daily. In this way the better spellers would Conduct 
complete their lists and be eliminated from 
the class and there would be retained in the class 
those who needed most help and most practice. 

This method of teaching spelling focuses the 
attention of the teacher and the children Advan- 
upon the particular words that must be *^ses 
given special attention. 

It excuses from the class those children who do 
not need to devote the time to the work. It keeps 
each child on the task only so long as he needs to 
continue and frees him as soon as he has completed 
his task. He may then devote himself to more 
profitable work. 

The Test-Drill Method frees the teacher from 
teaching a large class and permits her to give her 
time and attention to the children that need them. 

This method is based upon the supposition that 
children already know the meaning and have a 
mastery of the use in speech of the words 
that they are to spell. This is a supposi- "'^^ ^°°^ 
tion contrary to fact. Some children will know. 
Many children will not know. 

The method is also based upon the idea that the 
sole purpose of the spelling class is to teach the order 
of the letters in the word; and to make the spelling 



42 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

of the word automatic. The opponents of this 
method object, therefore, to its poverty of ideas. 
They say that while the habit of correct speUing is 
the goal sought, it is not necessary to rob the teach- 
ing of spelling of all other associated values in order 
to attain that end. 

If this method is to be used by the teacher, the 
closing days of the month, or whatever period is 
chosen, should be used for reviews. All 
the members of the class should participate. 
Some such devices as those suggested in the last 
chapter of this book may be used to motivate the 
reviews. Practically perfect spelling of the chosen 
Hst of words should be expected from all members 
of the class at the close of each month when this 
method is applied. 

THE TEACHING-STUDY METHOD 

Very clearly contrasted with the preceding plan 
is one in which the spelling recitation period is 
The Spell- "^^^^g^^ ^^ ^s one of energetic teaching on 
ing Lesson the part of the teacher and one of very 
Exercise thoughtful study on the part of the pupil, 
in Think- In this method, the teacher holds herself 
responsible even more than she does the 
children. She makes herself responsible for the 
certainty that the child is conscious of the correct 
pronunciation, accent, meaning, use of each word, 
and also that he develops the habit of correctly 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 43 

spelling the word. She starts with the assumption 
that he does not know, instead of the assumption 
that he does know, as in the preceding method dis- 
cussed. The spelling lesson is thought of much 
more as a teaching exercise than as a testing or a 
drill exercise. While there is testing and a great deal 
of drill, these come as subsequent to and secondary 
to the teaching. The advocates of this method 
follow some such procedure as the following : 

(1) The teacher writes the list of words very plainly 
on the board and uses each word in some suitable sentence 
as she writes it. She has the children look at the word 
for an instant and then she pronounces it again very 
distinctly, being very certain to give the correct value 
to each syllable. 

(2) The children then pronounce the word. At first, 
some child is called upon who will be sure to pronounce 
it correctly and distinctly. Then some one who would 
not have been likely to pronounce it so well, if asked to 
do so first, pronounces it. Finally, the entire class is 
asked to pronounce it in concert. 

(3) The word is then^used in sentences by the children. 
This is done to make certain that the children have a 
clear understanding of its meaning, and facility in its use. 
The definition of the word is not asked for. Webster had 
some difficulty in making clear the meaning of words by 
definition. Of course, a child in the elementary school 
would have even more trouble. The aim is not abstract 
definition — it is practical use. 

(4) The children then take a few minutes to study the 
words as they appear on the board. They note the order 
of the letters. They close their eyes and see if they can 



44 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

recall them in clear mental images. They discover where 
the difficulties of the words are for them and then attack 
those difficulties. 

(5) The words are next erased from the board and 
dictated to the children. They write the words. 

(6) The written words are next checked by having one 
child spell aloud from his paper and having the other 
members of the class check their mistakes, or by some 
other method upon which the class may agree. Each 
pupil notes his mistakes and puts them down on his 
own "black list" for further study. 

(7) The words that are taught one day are used for 
review on the following day and at definitely increasing 
intervals thereafter. 

Sound psychological principles are applied in using 
this method. A vivid initial impression is secured 
Advan- by the pupil. He has the impression mul- 
tages tiplied and increased through the eye, ear, 

hand; and tongue. Attentive repetition is secured 
through the variety of means used. 

The class period is a thought-provoking period 
and not one merely of monotonous repetition. 

Words are presented and used in expressing ideas. 
When learned in this way the words will recur 
naturally when need arises for them in written 
composition. 

Believers in the Test-Drill Method of teaching 
spelling very naturally urge the following 
objections to the Teaching-Study Method : 

If only the words that children actually use and 
therefore already know are taught in the spelling 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 45 

work, then much of the work indicated above is 
not only useless, it is wasteful if not silly. 

It is unwise to subject all pupils — the efficient 
and the inefficient — to the same task and the same 
routine. 

If the purpose of the spelling class is to teach 
spelling, why take the time to turn it into a lan- 
guage recitation ? 

The conflict is sharp and the distinction clear 
between the theories upon which the Test-Drill 
Method and the Teaching-Study Method ^ , . 

1 1 mi Conclusion 

of teachmg spelling are based. The con- 
flict arises chiefly from a disagreement as to the 
purpose of a spelling recitation. Your conclusion 
upon this point should determine the plan that you 
follow. 

THE CONTENT-DICTATION METHOD 

A method that is designed to combine the best 
features of the three preceding methods T^e 
may be characterized as the Content-Die- Principles 
tation Method. The best books which which it 
make use of this method are built upon the ^^ ^^^^* 
following principles : 

(1) For each new lesson, a few new words — from 
two to six — are presented in a meaningful context that 
is within the comprehension of the child. 

(2) The context is in the form of a paragraph that is 
composed of words that are a part of the child's vocabulary 
as determined by Jones and others. 



46 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

(3) The new words are so presented that they will 
make a vivid initial impression upon the child and so 
that he will understand their meaning and become ac- 
customed to their use. 

(4) Through the repetition that occurs in the para- 
graphs, sufficient provision is made for drill. This is 
supplemented by other devices. 

(5) Since spelhng is used in practice only when we 
write, the new words are presented to the pupil in a 
dictated paragraph which he writes. In this way, from the 
first, the contextual impression of the word that the pupil 
receives is correct. From its first presentation, it has 
meaning for him. 

Recalling the Incidental Method, we shall see that 
its chief claim to merit comes from the fact that 
Relation the words were selected from subject 
Content- i^^^^er that had real meaning for the chil- 
Dictation dren. The Test-Drill Method derives its 
to other strength from the fact that the attention 
Methods of the teacher and the pupil is focused upon 
those words that demand attention and practice. 
The Teaching-Study Method has as its chief virtue 
the fact that the intellects of the teacher and 
the pupil are actively engaged, respectively, in a 
clear and correct presentation of the word and in a 
mastery of it. If the Content-Dictation Method, 
through the books that make application of it, has 
succeeded in combining all these qualities without 
the weaknesses that are charged to each, then this is 
an accomplishment indeed. 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 47 

In teaching according to the Content-Dictation 
Method, one of two possibiHties is open to the 
teacher. She may take the new words for Mode of 
the lesson that occur in the paragraph and Procedure 
teach them as was suggested under the Teaching- 
Study Method. After having done this, she may 
dictate the paragraph. This will give opportunity 
for testing the teaching of the new words and for 
reviewing the old words that have been previously 
taught. On the other hand, she may dictate the 
paragraph first. Some children will probably spell 
correctly even the new words. If the assumption 
is correct that only the words that they actually 
use are being presented, this will be more likely to 
be true. Those children who do not spell the words 
correctly will be made immediately conscious of 
their need and will then be prepared for an intelligent 
and intensive study of the new words. In this event, 
we would have an application of the principle of 
testing first and then teaching where weakness is 
found. 

This method presents the new words to the 
children in a context that will usually have meaning 
for them. 

It necessitates spelling in written com- ^^^ ^^^^ 
position, which is the only form in which spelling is 
practically applied. 

It provides for constant review in writing of the 
words most frequently used in written composition. 



48 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Many of the dictation exercises of any book which 
systematically develops a vocabulary made up of 
certain predetermined words must neces- 
sarily be somewhat mechanical. Such a 
spelling book must endure the handicap^ suffered by 
the phonetic readers^ of being limited by the con- 
ditions which it must follow in order to attain its 
expressed goal. 

Its dictation exercises cannot be universally signif- 
icant. A paragraph that would be most significant 
to a child of English origin living in Staunton, 
Virginia, might mean little to a child of Italian 
origin living in Boston, a French child in Thibo- 
deaux, Louisiana, an Indian child in Sulphur Springs, 
Oklahoma, a Mexican child in El Paso, Texas, a 
German child in Bismarck, North Dakota, or a 
Swedish child at Bemidji, Minnesota. 

EXTRAVAGANT CLAIMS FOR VARIOUS METHODS 

It is wise for the teacher to take with a grain of 
salt the extravagant claims made by the proponents 
of the various methods of teaching spelling. 
Without doubt the advocates are honest 
in their claims and sincere in their beliefs. Doubtless, 
also, there is much truth to justify the claims. The 
proponent has probably tried his method and found 
that it gives excellent results. His errors arise from 
the fact that he has not given all the other methods 
an equally enthusiastic and fair trial. 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 49 

Certain psychological principles that are appli- 
cable to spelling have been experimentally proved. 
The difficulty in deciding the advantages of one 
method over other methods lies in the fact that 
each has certain sound principles for its support. 
Before we can know that one method of teaching is 
better than another, the two methods must be care- 
fully compared by competent and impartial experi- 
mentation, conducted according to principles that 
are scientifically sound. Such comparisons of the 
various methods of teaching spelling have not yet 
been made with sufficient accuracy — with the goals 
agreed upon, the situations equivalent, and the 
materials the same — to justify the extravagant 
claims of superiority of any method of teaching 
spelling over all other methods. 

It is probable that there will be much scientific 
study within the next few years of the relative 
merits of the various methods of teaching the dif- 
ferent school subjects. It is hoped that this dis- 
cussion will lead to a series of experiments in the 
various school systems of the country for the pur- 
pose of testing the merits of the different ways of 
teaching spelling, and of providing word lists so 
selected and arranged as to be suited to the various 
stages of the child's advancement. Some of the 
following chapters will discuss word lists. 

Textbook form and pedagogical procedure are 
often closely related. The type of textbook used 



50 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

in the teaching of speUing will have much to do 
with the type of method which the teacher will use. 
. . But the teacher should not be a slave to 
the adopted text. She should know that 
there are other ways of teaching spelling besides 
the one which the author of her text advocates. 
She should know the reasons for the other ways. 
This will give her a pedagogical freedom that can- 
not be had in a slavish following of one text. There 
will be situations which arise in every class that 
will call for the application of all the methods dis- 
cussed in this chapter. If the reading of this 
chapter has given to the reader a grasp of the prin- 
ciples involved in each method discussed to such an 
extent that she can apply them successfully when 
the situation in which they are needed arises, then 
this chapter will have served its purpose. 

The teacher must ever bear in mind that textbooks 
are not sacred and a particular method is not a law 
of the Medes and the Persians. The child's needs 
and the teacher's wisdom are the two determining 
factors. Materials and methods are means, not 
ends. 

Summary 

The types of teaching procedure, used in the teaching 
of spelling, can be clearly understood when thought 
of as the Incidental Method — the Test-Drill Method — 
the Teaching-Study Method — the Content-Dictation 
Method. 

Under the Incidental Method spelling is taught by 



METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 51 

correlating it with the other school subjects instead of 
by using a special text. 

When the Test-Drill Method is applied, only those 
words with which children are already familiar are pre- 
sented for study. The class is first tested to see what 
words they can already spell. Only those words that they 
do not spell correctly are given special attention. 

The Teaching-Study Method is the opposite of the 
Test-Drill Method. In this case, the words are first care- 
fully taught by the teacher and studied by the child. 
Drill is one of a number of phases that receive emphasis. 

The Content-Dictation Method is an attempt to 
teach spelling through written composition. There is a 
careful selection of new words put into a meaningful 
context which is dictated to the child. 

Each method has its advantages and is supported 
by sound principles. The teacher should study the prin- 
ciples of each and apply each as occasion requires. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Summarize the four methods of teaching spelling 
discussed in this chapter, giving the advantages claimed 
for and the disadvantages charged against each method. 
Do you agree with this analysis? State your reasons. 

2. Give five situations in which you would deem it 
wise to use the Incidental Method. 

3. If you were using the Test-Drill Method, how 
would you provide employment for those pupils who 
were excused from the spelling class? 

4. Does the lesson plan of the Teaching-Study Method 
appeal to you as a teacher of spelling or do you think you 
would find it irksome? If so, why? 

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages to the 
pupil when the teacher composes her own dictation ex- 
ercises for the use of the class in spelling ? 



CHAPTER II 
SPELLING BOOKS 

The spelling book has had an interesting history. 
From the days of Noah Webster, when he gave to 
the world his famous Blue Back Speller, to the 
present, spelling, as a separate subject, has usually 
been recognized as one of the fundamentals. For a 
few years, about the close of the last century, the 
spelling book fell into disuse because of the revela- 
tions made by Dr. Rice and by Dr. Cornman, 
referred to in Part I of this book; but in recent 
years the schools have been using spelling books 
because it was found that teaching spelling in an 
incidental fashion was not producing the desired 
results. A constantly growing number of books 
and a wide variety of methods for use in the ele- 
mentary grades of our schools have been presented 
for the consideration of educators. We have before 
us forty different spelling texts that have been used 
in the public schools of America. Of this number 
we find, upon investigation, that there are twenty 
or more different texts that are now in use in the 
different states of the nation. These texts represent 
all the various psychological and pedagogical ideas 

52 



SPELLING BOOKS 53 

that have been urged at any time since spelling as a 
subject began to be taught in our schools. 

To the layman, all spelling books are alike. A 
"spelling book is a spelling book." "Pigs is pigs." 
But; to the person who has made a study of 
spelling, there is as great a difference be- spelling 
tween one spelling book and another as ^?^\ 
there is between the pure bred hog of some 
modern breed and the little creature that is dignified 
by the title of guinea pig. 

"But," you ask, "just what are the differences? 
Do they not all contain words ? Is it not a matter, 
after all, of learning to spell words?" So it is, So 
it was a matter of growing meat with the hog raiser, 
but he found that there was a difference in the price 
of the product when he fed a pure bred hog and 
when he fed a poorly bred hog. He also found there 
was a difference due to the kind of ration and to the 
time of feeding. With the learner, it is a matter 
of learning to spell, but his results will depend 
much upon what he has to work with and also 
the manner in which he does his work. SpeUing 
books differ greatly in their general plan, in the 
words they contain, and as much, if not more, 
in the psychological laws that they call into opera- 
tion. 

Because of these differences, we give below an 
analysis of the various types of spelling book. 
They may be divided roughly into five types. 



54 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

The first of these types may be called the logical 
type because logical arrangement determines the 
The Logical placing of the words. The old Webster ^s 
Type glue Back Speller is the oldest and best 

recognized example of this group. Words were ar- 
ranged according to the number of syllables. Such 
matters as the learner's need, probability of use, 
and the laws of association, were entirely disregarded. 
That one word had as many letters as another or 
had a sound similar to that of another was sufficient 
reason for the two to be placed in the same group, 
even if one of those words was already well known 
to the child and the other was one that he need 
never know and would never use. There has been 
a large progeny of this type of spelling book. The 
logical spelling books were favorites in the days 
when the oral spelling bee was common. The 
words they contain are excellent for use on such 
occasions. They are not suitable for everyday use 
in written composition and it is only in written 
composition that spelling is really used. 

In order to illustrate the mechanical qualities of 
these logical spelling books we give herewith the 
first and last groups of words given in one of the 
texts : 

ache unintentional 

adz university 

aid unmentionable 

aim utilitarian 



SPELLING BOOKS 55 

aisle valetudinarian 

alms vegetarian 

aught verification 

auk veterinary 

aunt volubility 

awe voluntarily 

A glance at the above lists will reveal several 
things : (1) They are mere lists of words picked 
from the alphabetical lists as they are found in the 
dictionary. (2) Few of them are words that children 
would use. (3) Some of the words that are given 
in the first lesson in the book would not be used by 
the children any earlier than would the words that 
are presented in the last lesson. The element of 
service seems never to have been considered in the 
arrangement of the materials. 

The question before the teacher is : If I have such 
a text as the above and if I must, according to the 
rules of the authorities, use it, how shall I handle it ? 

The first thing to be done is to get clearly in mind 
the aims that are to be followed. These aims have 
a twofold purpose for the child : 

(1) To learn more fully the meaning and use of the 
words already a part of the child's speaking, hearing, 
and reading vocabularies. 

(2) To learn how to spell the word so well that the 
spelling itself gives the writer no cause for thought or 
concern when he is to use it in written composition. 

The author of such a book did not have these aims 
in mind, for, had this been the case, the materials 



56 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

would not have been so arranged. With such a 
text; the teaching phase of the class work must 
occupy an unnecessarily large part of the teacher's 
time. She must think out some plan of association 
to use in presenting the words, in using the words, 
and in reviewing the words. This will be difl&cult 
and wasteful of the teacher's time, but it will result 
in economy in the time of the children and in more 
efficient work. To put these words into one para- 
graph so as to show their meanings would be rather 
difficult and would produce compositions of sublime 
absurdity. 

See the following paragraph as an illustration of 
an effort to put into suitable context the first ten 
words referred to above : 

"The boy suffered from a dreadful ache. Aid 
was given but it did not accomplish aught. He 
died and was taken down the aisle of the church. 
The coffin had been hewn with an adz. The scene 
filled all who saw it with awe. The aim of the spec- 
tators was to give alms to the poor relations but 
the rich aunt objected, saying that she would pro- 
vide for their wants from her auk farm in the far 
north." 

With such a context, the child would probably 
become so much interested in the somberness of the 
story or so curious about what an auk farm was that 
he would lose all interest in the spelling itself. Such 
original, continuous paragraphs, therefore, seem not 



SPELLING BOOKS 57 

advisable. With such a list of words the aim should 
be merely to teach the meaning of the word as it 
would occur in a sentence. The child should re- 
member the word for its own sake and not for the 
story's sake. The following sentences will illustrate 
how these words may be presented in a suitable 
context : 

L I have an ache, or pain, in the back of my head. 

2. The adz is a tool used by builders of log houses. 

3. Aid was given to the woman who was in trouble. 

4. My aim is to complete this task to-day. 

5. The aisle of the church is the space between two 
rows of seats. 

6. Those who have enough give alms to the very 
poor. 

7. I never hear aught but good of him. 

8. An auk is a bird of the far north. 

9. Your aunt is your mother's or your father's sister. 
10. The mountain is so high it fills me with awe. 

Such a list of sentences can easily be made by 
the teacher as she presents the words for the first 
time to the class. Numerous devices must be 
used for the purpose of giving drill upon such a list 
of words. The teacher must not take it for granted 
that a child can spell a word simply because he 
understands its use or even because he can use it 
correctly in oral composition. There is no proof 
of his ability to spell except the actual unassisted 
correct writing of the word by the child in his own 
composition. 



58 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

One of the first things that the teacher must 
learn is that she must use her own judgment in 
selecting words that are to constitute the child's 
lesson. If there are words in a group that is being 
studied that the teacher knows are foreign to the 
child's experience, conversation, and reading, then 
those words should be omitted. Spelling texts 
are being constantly improved, but even the very 
best texts admit of selection in order better to suit 
local situations. What is within the city child's 
^^ hearing" and ^^ reading" vocabulary may be en- 
tirely foreign to the rural child and vice versa. 
The more strictly logical type of spelling book 
will call for more careful selection of words on the 
part of the teacher, but all spelling books will de- 
mand this attention to some degree. 

Fortunately for the teachers and the children, 
the extremely logical type of book has largely 
disappeared. In spite of that fact, we sometimes 
hear some one say : '^ There has never been a spell- 
ing book like the old Blue Back ; we do not have 
spellers to-day such as we had in the old days." 
Let us agree to both statements and be thankful. 

The phonetic type of spelling book is a natural 
descendant of the logical type of spelling book. 
^^ Instead of making the requirement a cer- 

Phonetic tain letter, as the beginning of each word 
^yP® of the lesson group, or the same number 

of letters in the words or the same number of syl- 



SPELLING BOOKS 59 

lables — as was the rule with the logical type — 
the phonetic type of spelling book places its em- 
phasis upon similar sounds. It makes its appeal 
through a group of letters, the sound of which is 
common to all words in the group, even though the 
words are not related in meaning. It makes its 
appeal to the ear and the eye, especially to the ear. 
It does not concern itself much with association of 
ideas but rather with association of sounds. The 
following words taken from one of the best spellers 
of this type will illustrate this point : 



out 


broke 


pail 


about 


smoke 


sail 


pout 


spoke 


wail 


stout 


joke 


tail 


spout 


poke 


bail 


shout 


yoke 


fail 


scout 


choke 


nail 


trout 


woke 


mail 



A perusal of the above lists will reveal the common 
element in each of the words of these lists. These 
words are so arranged as to secure with ease and 
speed the second of the purposes of teaching spell- 
ing; viz., '^Making automatic the spelling of the 
words studied." It entirely omits the first of these 
aims; viz., "The teaching of the meaning and use 
of the words." Even if a child can spell a word 
with unfailing correctness when it is in such a list 
as the above, it is not certain that he will be able 



60 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

to spell it when it is disassociated from the list and 
put in a meaningful context. 

What shall the teacher do when confronted with 
a situation such as this text presents? 

Fortunately^ there are a number of things to re- 
he ve the teachers in this situation : (1) With these 
books, the lists are usually made up of words that 
are already familiar to the child and are a part of 
his spoken vocabulary. The main thing, then, 
that is needed by him is to learn how to spell the 
words. (2) Since the child can probably commit 
to memory more of these words in a given time than 
he can of a group of wholly dissimilar words, he 
will have some time to devote to such supplementary 
work as the teacher thinks to be necessary. (3) One 
of the great advantages of the phonetic type in 
the elementary grades is that it appeals to the 
child's natural fondness for rhyme and similarities. 
Even this must be capitalized, or else it will prove 
a sameness that kills rather than a similarity that 
thrills. 

The plan of procedure, then, with the phonetic 
type of spelling book is : (1) to make the most of 
its good points for rapid, happy, rhythmical drill; 
(2) to feel free to turn aside and do such other teach- 
ing as is not provided for by the book. Remember 
that it is a drill-device book and not a thought- 
teaching book. 

By far the largest number of spelling books that 



SPELLING BOOKS 



61 



are now on the market and coming from the press 
are of the psychological or language- ^j^^ p^ _ 
teaching type. They are based on as- choiogicai 
sociated ideas. Sometimes the purpose ^J^^J 
is more dominantly that of stimulating Teaching 
expression. To illustrate : ^^® 

A picture is presented of a boy driving home the 
cows from pasture at the close of day. After class 
discussion of the picture, the following words are 
given for the lesson : calves, fodder, switch, patient, 
driving, country, timothy. The child is then asked 
to write about the good time he thinks the boy is 
having. The aim is to teach certain words in a 
specific connection in order that the child may apply 
them at once in written composition. 

A second illustration of this type is the book in 
which a group of words, all related to the same thing, 
are included in one lesson. The two lists of words 
given below are typical : 





Parts of the Body 




ear 




hair 


eye 




skull 


nose 




cheek 


mouth 




teeth 


brain 


A House 


tongue 


portico 




piazza 


arcade 




vestibule 


porch 




veranda 


balcony 




passageway 



62 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

In this type, a selection of literature is some- 
times used for class study and then from it are 
selected certain words for study as drill in spell- 
ing. The following selection will illustrate this 
point : 

"The night has a thousand eyes, 
And the day but one ; 
Yet the light of the whole world dies 
With the dying sun." 

Words for drill : died, dies, dying, eyes, whole, 
thousand. 

A fourth illustration of this type is the book that 
provides a heterogeneous group of words to be 
drilled upon but gives a simple sentence to illus- 
trate the meaning of the word, as follows : 

tried .... The boys tried to hit the frogs, 

dance .... They danced about the pond, 

side .... They ran up and down the sides, 

toss .... They tossed sticks into the pond, 

block .... They tossed blocks of wood, too. 

The books which are written according to the 
plans that have been illustrated under this third 
type have one very distinct advantage and are 
subject to one very great danger. The great ad- 
vantage is that the words are always presented in a 
meaningful way. The spelling lesson becomes a 
thought lesson and not simply an automatic per- 
formance. The child will readily understand the 



SPELLING BOOKS 63 

words and will be able to use them in sentences 
that have meaning to himself and to others. The 
danger to which this type of book subjects the pupil 
using it is that his attention will be directed to 
the thought and not to the ^^ order of letters in the 
word/^ which, after all, is what constitutes spelling. 
Thought content may be taught in other classes. 
The purpose of the spelling class is to teach spell- 
ing, to make automatic the placing of the letters 
in the correct order in those words that the child 
has occasion to use in written composition. If this 
result is not accomplished, then in so far as spell- 
ing is concerned, all the other work is for naught. 
The work may have been interesting as language, 
literature, art, geography, or history, but it was 
not good teaching of spelling. Whatever else is 
done in the spelling class may be finally justified 
as a part of the teaching of spelling only to the ex- 
tent that it really aids in making automatic the 
use of the correct order of the letters. 

If the teacher has a language-teaching spelling 
book, she must bear these facts in mind. She has 
an implement with which she can make of the spell- 
ing lessons very interesting social periods. The 
spelling lessons may be filled with interesting ideas 
and happy expression, but the spelling teacher 
must remember that there must be sufficient review 
and drill to make automatic the correct order of the 
letters in the words that are taught. She must 



64 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

make certain that the words that have been taught 
have been learned. If the teacher is alert, this will 
cause her no trouble but only add to her pleasure as 
a teacher. 

There are a number of books that seem not to 
fall very distinctly under any one of the preceding 
Mixed types but which seem to partake some- 
Type what of the characteristics of each. In 
these books an effort has been made to blend the 
best qualities of each of the types discussed. What 
we have said, therefore, in regard to each type 
would apply, in so far as these qualities are con- 
cerned, to the mixed type. 

Under the heading, Miscellaneous Types, at least 
three classes of books may be mentioned : 

(1) There is the class built upon the theory 
that the purpose of the spelling book is to pre- 
]y£jg_ sent words that are already familiar to 

ceiianeous the child and a working part of his 
spoken and written vocabulary. Under 
such circumstances, all that is needed is to find 
what words occur most often in his vocabulary 
and to arrange them accordingly for class study. 
The purpose of teaching spelling with such a book 
is not to teach the meaning of but merely to test 
the ability to spell these old familiar words. If the 
pupil cannot spell them correctly, then the teacher 
must correct his errors and drill upon the correct 
spelling until it is automatic. Thus the spell- 



SPELLING BOOKS 65 

ing task becomes, first, one of testing, and then one 
of drilL While review, repetition, and drill are 
essential in making automatic the order of letters 
in the word, the scope of the spelling class and the 
material of the recitation need not be so restricted 
as such a text would imply. 

(2) Somewhat related to the above class of books is 
the one which makes drill its one distinguishing 
feature. It presents but few words for each new 
lesson, usually two. It provides for a series of re- 
views coming at intervals of increasing length. 
This book has in its favor certain fundamental 
psychological laws which function in memorizing 
and which operate against forgetting. The teacher 
should profit from the principles applied in such a 
text, but should remember that here, as with other 
texts, the teacher's own ability must function in 
providing devices that give variety in order that 
the scheme of repetition provided may not make 
the work monotonous. 

(3) A third example is the book that depends 
chiefly upon similarities of vowel sounds and of 
consonant sounds, and that emphasizes diacritical 
marking. This is a distant offspring of the old 
logical type described in the beginning of this dis- 
cussion. It follows strictly logical principles. It 
finds some element in a group of words that is alike 
or something in them that is different and it em- 
phasizes this similarity or difference. 



66 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Illustration : o like e, as in odor, ardor, armor, 
harbor J humor, 

y like i, as in dye, type, style, rhyme, 
lying. 

The great weakness of this type of book is that, 
although it associates ideas, the ideas are very ab- 
stract and unimportant and are so varied that they 
confuse rather than clarify the problem of spelling. 

That the first of the miscellaneous types of books 
could show results should be expected. It under- 
takes so little that it should succeed in what it 
undertakes. That number two could boast of good 
results is only natural. A drop of water dropping 
constantly on a rock will finally make an impres- 
sion. That number three should be able to make a 
good showing would be a miracle indeed. 

While we have tried in the preceding pages to give 
the teacher an analysis of the various types of 
spelling books that are now before the public and 
in use in our schools, it must be understood that 
we have merely given our own analysis and judg- 
ment.^ The relative value of different types of books 
in accomplishing different desirable ends has not yet 
been scientifically determined. One of the oppor- 
tunities of the classroom teacher of to-day is def- 
initely to settle some of these problems which clamor 
for solution. 

^ See a related analysis in the Journal of Educational Researchf 
Vol. I, February, p. 119, Article by Clifford Woody. 



SPELLING BOOKS 67 

Summary 

Spelling books may be grouped, roughly, according to 
their most dominant characteristics, under the following 
classifications: (1) Logical, (2) Phonetic, (3) Psycho- 
logical or Language-Teaching, (4) Mixed, (5) Miscella- 
neous. 

The Logical Type is the oldest. Its lessons are com- 
posed of words that have one common element such as the 
same number of letters, s^dlables, the same initial or final 
letter, and the like. Physical similarity is the determining 
factor. 

The Phonetic Type makes similarity of sound its 
controlling factor. It is a logical speller in that it em- 
phasizes the logic of tone, whereas the earlier speller em- 
phasized the logic of structure. 

The Psychological or Language-Teaching Type is a 
book that makes the association of ideas the central 
thought. The aim is to teach spelling but to do so in 
such a way that it shall be accompanied by much good 
language work. 

The Mixed Type is a book in which the various char- 
acteristics of all types are so interwoven that it seems not 
to have a definite method of its own. 

Miscellaneous Types is a term chosen to represent 
all those that do not fall clearly within one of the types 
mentioned before. Under this heading might be classed 
a number of books now before the American school 
public. Only three have been mentioned : first, a book 
that makes the child's own vocabulary the limit of the 
text; second, a book that makes repetition the major 
factor; third, a book that makes word similarities that 
are determined by diacritical marking the basis for the 
teaching effort. 



68 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Questions and Exercises 

1 . Summarize the characteristics of the first four types 
of books discussed in this chapter. Does the text which 
you use belong to one of these types? To which? 

2. What are the characteristics of the three books 
described under Miscellaneous Types? Does your 
adopted text belong to one of these types? To which? 

3. Which of the eight kinds of books described in this 
chapter would you prefer to use as a text? What are 
the arguments you would use to induce your book com- 
mission to adopt your choice ? 

4. Describe an experiment you might conduct to test 
the relative merits of two or more spelling texts with 
which you are familiar. 



CHAPTER III 

STANDARDS BY WHICH TO MEASURE 
SPELLING BOOKS 

Teachers in the elementary schools of our coun- 
try should be able to measure the merits of the 
texts that they use. A survey of the speUing texts 
that are now in use throughout the United States 
shows very clearly that the teachers of the coun- 
try and the school committees who select the books 
for the teachers have not in the past been very 
familiar with spelling book standards. We give 
below a few of the fundamental principles that we 
feel every book intended for use as a text in spell- 
ing should meet. We believe that if the teachers 
will measure the particular texts that they^ happen 
to be using by these standards, it will aid them in 
discovering the weaknesses of their books and the 
weaknesses of their own classroom work, and will 
thus make it possible for them to correct hitherto 
undiscovered defects. 

(1) Does the text present the words that a child 
uses and needs now and will need very soon ? 

Dr. W. Franklin Jones has made a study of the 
words that children actually use at different ages 

69 



70 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

and in the different grades of schooL His list of 
4532 words and the Ayres list of a thousand words 
Useful- ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ reliable sources of material 
ness of that are available for use in these grades. 
Other lists of value, concerning which more 
will be said in the next chapter, are now coming into 
pubHc recognition, notably the Iowa Spelling Scale. 
These lists present the minimal essentials, so to 
speak, of what all children will need, without refer- 
ence to locality, present environment, or proposed 
occupation. One of the possible criticisms of the 
Language-Teaching spelling books, discussed in 
the previous chapter, is that they usually have a 
number of lessons included that are not applicable 
to all sections of the country or to the social and 
vocational environment of all pupils. But these 
lessons are not particularly objectionable if the 
teacher will use common sense and omit such special 
groups of words as will awaken no past experience 
or fill no future need of the child. Some books 
contain as many as five thousand words, while 
careful examination of the facts reveals that not 
more than half that number are really used by the 
child. That the child may need a word and may 
use it when he is grown is no reason for having him 
learn to spell it when he is a pupil in the third grade. 

(2) Is the material of the text so arranged that 
it lends itself to the instruction, inspiration, and 
information of the child? 



SPELLING BOOK STANDARDS 71 

If the material is not so arranged, the text is no 
better than were those of a century ago, before the 
laws of psychology were made known by Arrange- 
much experimentation with cause and mentof 
effect, situation and response, satisfaction 
and annoyance, association, etc. The teachableness 
of the words will depend chiefly upon their grouping. 
Interested attention, an element absolutely necessary 
to the teaching of spelling, depends upon the group- 
ing of the words. Just how can they be so ar- 
ranged as to beget the maximum amount of thought- 
ful, voluntary, and continued attention? This is 
the problem for the text maker, and an important 
claim to merit for his text should be based upon his 
success in this particular. 

(3) After we are sure that the author has given 
us a text that is thought-provoking, idea-stimulat- 
ing, neurone-exciting in its nature, the 
next thing that concerns us is : What for correct 
means has he provided to make habitual J?^^^*^. 

, . » , -. , Formation 

the exact reproduction of the order of the 
letters in the words by the child whenever the 
child has to write the words ? In other words, what 
means has he used for providing drill for the words 
that he has presented in such an attractive manner ? 
Experimentation shows that man forgets very easily 
and very quickly. It shows further that he forgets 
more rapidly just after a thing has been learned than 
he does later on. We must therefore make certain 



72 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

that means are provided for drilling on new words 
very soon after they have been learned. There 
must be other drills at intervals increasing in length. 
The text itself should be fertile with suggestions and 
illustrations as to how drills may be made inter- 
esting. The text maker should know much more 
of this than does the elementary teacher and should 
not fail to give her the benefit of that knowledge. 

(4) To what extent does the book make use of 
phonetic principles and devices ? 

Spelling is largely a phonetic process. This is 
particularly true in the earlier work of the child. 
Use of However, even during the first year in 
Phonetic which the child makes a systematic study 
of spelling, the device of phonetic resem- 
blance should not be the only means of association 
used. He will, it is probable, have learned much 
of phonetics in his reading classes during the first 
two years of his school life, even if he has not taken 
up the systematic study of spelling. By the time 
he has completed his third school year he should 
have a practical mastery of elementary phonetics 
and his attention should be centered upon other 
types of association and other ideas that will in- 
terest him vastly more than will the phonetic 
similarities of words. 

(5) Does the book make sufficient use of similar- 
ities and of contrasts in the form and meaning of 
words to stimulate thinking by the child? 



SPELLING BOOK STANDARDS 73 

Although speUing lessons should gradually en- 
rich the child's mind with thought content, and 
although the process must make habit- useof 
ual the correct order of letters in words, ^°?- 

parison 

it must not be felt that it is outside and Con- 
the province of the spelling lesson to call *^^^* 
for careful observation of similarities and contrasts, 
and the liberal use of reason in arranging words in 
groups according to form or function. Such work 
will serve to impress the order of the letters and the 
meaning and function of the words far more than will 
mere repetition. Such exercises will give repetition 
and at the same time will hold the pupiFs attention. 

The above suggestion must not be taken to mean 
that the teacher must work to see just how many 
problems she can discover that can be worked out 
in connection with the speUing lessons. The reason- 
ing phase of the work can be easily overdone. 
One text that came to our notice had used this de- 
vice to such an extent that it had become a mod- 
ern illustration of the ancient mental arithmetic. 
Everything the author could think of had been 
compared or contrasted. So much was this true 
that one, in making a study of the book, came to 
feel that it was not meant to teach spelling but to 
test one's ingenuity in solving little spelling and 
language puzzles. 

In conclusion, it may be said that while the 
above standards should apply to the material and 



74 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

methods of every good spelling book, it does not 
follow that a book must be cast aside as worthless 
if it does not contain all these elements. The 
authors of spelling books usually are deeply imbued 
with one idea. They are perfectly honest in putting 
it forward even to the point of overemphasis. 
They have usually tried out in many classrooms the 
plan which they present and they have the satis- 
faction of knowing that it worked. If it worked 
in their classrooms, it will work in yours. This is 
true. But it is also true that you may be able to 
use such of their ideas as seem wise to you and, at 
the same time, supplement these ideas wdth sug- 
gestions from other sources. To point out ways 
of doing this is the purpose of this discussion. If 
a study of these standards serves to give to the 
teacher a broader view and greater independence 
of method, then they will have served the purpose 
for which they are set forth. 

Summary 

Teachers in the elementary schools should be able to 
judge the merits of the books that they use. This ability 
will aid them better to adapt their methods to the 
children's needs and to offset more effectively the text's 
limitations. The following questions, when answered 
with fairness and good judgment based upon the facts in 
the books and the scientijfic literature on the subject, 
should give the teacher a fair estimate of the merits of a 
text: 



SPELLING BOOK STANDARDS 75 

Does it present the words that a child needs and uses 
now and will need and use very soon ? 

Is the material of the text so arranged that it lends itself 
to the instruction, inspiration, and information of the 
child? 

Has the author provided drill for the purpose of making 
habitual the exact reproduction of the order of the letters 
in the word by the child whenever he has to write it? 

Does the book make wise and helpful use of phonetic 
principles and devices? 

Does the book make sufficient use of similarities and 
contrasts in the form and meaning of words to stimulate 
thinking by the child ? 

A book may be a valuable book even though it does not 
conform to all these standards. Few books do. But 
the teacher should understand that it is her duty to supply 
what the book lacks. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Consider the different types of spelling books avail- 
able in your community. Try to identify each of the 
books with one of the types discussed in Chapter II. To 
how many of the standards set forth ^in this chapter does 
each book conform? 

2. What principle does the author of each spelling 
text examined by you, follow in presenting the words to 
the children for the first time? 

3. What plan is used in each text for making habitual 
the spelling of the words? 

4. Select from each text five words that you know are 
frequently misspelled and trace them throughout the 
book. How many times and at what intervals are they 
presented ? 



CHAPTER IV 
SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 

In Part II of the Eighteenth Year Book of the 
National Society for the Scientific Study of Edu- 
cation, Dr. Ernest Horn, of the University of Iowa, 
has presented a very careful summary of all the more 
important experiments and investigations that have 
been made in connection with the teaching and learn- 
ing of spelling. Of this compilation of more than 
one hundred significant experiments and investiga- 
tions, we shall concern ourselves in this chapter, 
primarily, with only two. The first of these is the 
list of "One Hundred Spelling Demons'' prepared by 
Dr. Franklin Jones, recently of the University of 
South Dakota. The second is '^A Suggested 
Minimal Spelling List" arranged by grades, pre- 
pared by one of the authors of this guide. 



"one hundred spelling demons" 
Dr. Jones investigated the following problem : 

*' What words, grade for grade, do children use in their 
own free written speech, and what words, therefore, do they 
need to know how to spell?'' 

76 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 77 

To answer this question, Dr. Jones selected 1050 
children in four states, distributed from the second 
to the eighth grades inclusive. He had source of 
each child write from fifty-seven to one Material 
hundred and five compositions and then he counted 
the number of words that were used by each child 
and the number of words that were used by all the 
children of each of the seven grades. His discoveries 
were very interesting. He found that the children 
of the second grade used 1927 words in all. 

The third grade added to this number . 469 words 

The fourth 442 words 

The fifth 432 words 

The sixth 425 words 

The seventh 419 words 

The eighth 418 words 

Thus, the number of words used by all children 
in each grade group varied from 1927 used by the 
second grade to 4532 used by all the children from 
the second to the eighth grade inclusive. The inter- 
esting point in this whole matter and the one to which 
the attention of the reader is especially called is 
this fact : More than nine tenths of all words that 
were misspelled by these 1050 children were found 
in the 2396 words that were in the written vocab- 
ularies of the second and third grades. The one 
hundred words that caused the greater part of the 
trouble have been dubbed "The One Hundred 
Spelling Demons'^ and are given as follows : 



78 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



which 


can't 


guess 


they 


their 


sure 


says 


half 


there 


loose 


having 


break 


separate 


lose 


just 


buy 


don't 


Wednesday 


doctor 


again 


meant 


country 


whether 


very 


friend 


February 


beheve 


none 


business 


know 


knew 


week 


many 


could 


laid 


often 


some 


seems 


tear 


whole 


been 


Tuesday 


choose 


won't 


used 


wear 


tired 


cough 


always 


answer 


grammar 


piece 


where 


two 


minute 


raise 


women 


too 


any 


ache 


done 


ready 


much 


read 


hear 


forty 


beginning 


said 


here 


hour 


blue 


hoarse 


write 


trouble 


though 


shoes 


writing 


among 


coming 


to-night 


heard 


busy 


early 


wrote 


does 


built 


instead 


enough 


once 


color 


easy 


truly 


would 


making 


every 


straight 


since 


dear 


through 


sugar 



Practically any child that is advanced enough to 
be in an intermediate spelling class is mature 
enough to know how to spell or to learn to spell 
the words in the above list. They are in a sense 
difficult. If the reader will glance over the list she 
may find a number that even yet give her trouble 
in her own written work. This is due to the fact 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 79 

that at the right time those words were not so 
taught and so drilled upon that their spelling became 
automatic in the mind. What an obligation, then, 
upon the teacher to see that the children whom she 
teaches shall not be similarly handicapped and 
embarrassed during their lives by the inability to 
spell words in such very common use — words that 
can be so easily taught and learned if they are 
taught in the right way and learned at the right 
time. 

We are confident that another shorter list of 
Spelling Demons of anotherKtype'of words could be 
discovered were one to make a careful study of the 
errors that children make in the spelling of words 
that call for the use of the hyphen and the apos- 
trophe. This could include possessives, contrac- 
tions, and compounds. A suggestive study of this 
question is presented in the English Journal for 
June, 1919, by John A. Lester. His discussion relates 
particularly to this difficulty as related to college 
Freshmen, but an even more fruitful study of it might 
be made as it is related to the elementary school. 

A SUGGESTED MINIMAL SPELLING LIST 

"A Suggested Minimal Spelling List," referred 
to above, is presented here because it serves as one 
of the most comprehensive summaries of the vari- 
ous spelling lists that have been developed by 
investigators who have studied this question, and 



80 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

because it groups together those words that must 
be taught by the teachers and learned by the children 
of America if correct spelling is to be a result of 
our educational system. It is hoped that this tenta- 
tive graded list will meet the popular demand for a 
short list containing the most commonly used words. 

It has been assumed that a useful spelling list 
should contain : first, the words which children in 
Material the elementary school are most likely to 
Included ^gg {^i their daily written work ; and, 
second, the words which will be most frequently 
used after the pupil leaves school. 

This list was compiled from the following spelling 
tests and word lists : 

Professor Jones' Concrete Investigation of the Material 
of English Spelling. This is probably the most thorough- 
going of the publications examined. It presents 4532 
words derived from the study of 15,000,000 words in the 
themes of 1050 elementary school children, grades 2 to 8, 
inclusive. 

Common Essentials in Spelling, a list of 3470 words, 
prepared by C. K. Studley and Allison Ware. It is a 
compilation of the words found in Dr. Leonard P. Ayres' 
Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters, 
those included in a list prepared by Miss Effie McFadden 
and Dr. Frederic Burke of the San Francisco, California, 
State Normal School, and the words found in the com- 
positions of the children of the Chico District, California. 

Mr. Algar Woolf oik's list, containing 411 words from 
the written work of children in grades 3 to 8, inclusive, of 
the Horace Mann School, New York City, the public 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 81 

schools of Newark, New Jersey, and those of Richmond, 
Virginia. This hst inchides only words which were mis- 
spelled four or more times in the manuscripts examined. 

Mr. Homer J. Smith's hst of 1138 words as derived 
from a total of 12,500 words used in the spontaneous com- 
positions of elementary school children in grades 3 to 8, 
inclusive. The list omits numerals, all proper nouns, 
pronouns, prepositions, and some conjunctions. 

The Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Spelling List, prepared 
by the teachers and supervisors of the public schools. 
This Hst has been incorporated in a series of spelling 
books, containing approximately 4000 words, for use in 
grades 1 to 8, inclusive. 

The Hsts prepared by the teachers of the Boston public 
schools who were asked to contribute minimal and sup- 
plementary word lists for all the elementary grades. 
The former contain 840 words ; the latter, 2542. 

Dr. Leonard P. Ayres' Measuring Scale for Ability in 
Spelling. This contains one thousand words compiled 
by the author from the most frequently occurring words in 
(1) his study of the Vocabularies of Personal and Business 
Letters, (2) Cook and O' Shea's study of personal letters, 
(3) Eldridge's newspaper hst, (4) ''the 358 most fre- 
quently occurring words in an aggregate of 100,000" 
found in the Bible and ''various authors" by Reverend 
J. Knowles of London, England. 

Hick's Champion Spelling Booh. Only the words em- 
phasized in daily lessons, 1872 in all, are included, the 
assumption being that they are not only the most fre- 
quently misspelled, but also the ones in most common 
use. 

An examination of the following lists showed what 
words would probably be found in the vocabularies 



82 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

of business people, and, consequently, in the vocab- 
ularies of pupils going to work upon the completion 
of the elementary school, or earlier : 

Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters. 
The 542 common words found in this study of Dr. 
Leonard P. Ayres are probably too well known to need 
discussion. 

Mr. W. E. Chancellor's Hst consisting of the 1000 most 
common words, compiled from his personal correspondence 
as superintendent of schools. 

Professors Cook and 0' Shea's Hst consisting of three 
thousand words from the correspondence of thirteen 
adults. 

The newspaper list compiled by Mr. R. C. Eldridge of 
Niagara Falls, New York, is the most comprehensive of 
all the hsts examined. It consists of six thousand words 
from two pages of each of four Buffalo, New York, Sunday 
papers. 

In all the lists examined, the noticeable frequency 
of a few words indicates that they are the commonest 
ones in the daily business and private correspondence 
of most people. According to Mr. Eldridge, "the 
first 750 words" in his list "with their repetitions, 
constitute more than three-fourths of all the words 
on the eight pages from which they have been drawn, 
and probably a large part of these words will be 
found in nearly the same proportion in any English 
conversation or printed matter." Dr. Ayres tabu- 
lated the first words in each line of several hundred 
letters, 23,629 words in all, including repetitions; 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 83 

542 words with their repetitions made up seven 
eighths of the total number, while 23,087 with 
their repetitions constituted the other one eighth. 
Mr. Knov/les' 358 words with their repetitions com- 
prised 75 per cent of the 100,000 words which he 
tabulated. 

Owing to the wide geographical distribution of the 
places from which the lists came, the individual 
lists contain many words of purely local significance. 
The common words which form the nucleus of our 
written vocabulary are found to a large extent in all 
the lists. 

After the lists had been selected, each was num- 
bered, and all the words were checked in a dictionary. 
The figure 1 was placed before every word in the 
dictionary which occurred in the Eldridge list. 
The figure 2 was placed before each word that was 
found in the Jones list. The other ten lists were 
checked in the same fashion. All together, about 
30,000 words were checked. By far the greatest 
number of words in each list occurred in only one list, 
a somewhat smaller number in two lists, and so on 
down to 121 that were common to 10 lists, 54 common 
to 11 lists, and only 9, viz., again, any, believe, look, 
many, money, remember, there, and through, that were 
found in all the lists. 

It was arbitrarily decided to include in the final 
list all words which occurred in at least six of the 
twelve lists examined ; there were 1309 such words. 



84 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Arranging the words by grades presented a much 
greater difficulty than their selection. An examina- 
tion of eight graded Hsts ; viz., The California and 
Johnstown spellers, Hick's Champion Spelling Book, 
and the Boston, New Orleans, Richmond, Smith, and 
Woolfolk lists revealed much difference of opinion 
as to where some of the words should be placed. 
Thus, accept was put in the third grade list by one 
author, in the fourth by a second, and in the fifth by 
a third, in the sixth by three, and in the seventh by 
two. It appears among the sixth grade words in the 
appended list. Address, which appeared in three 
fifth, one sixth, and one eighth grade list, has been 
placed in the fifth grade of the appended Hst. Am, 
which was found in first, second, and fifth grade 
lists, most frequently in the last, was placed in the 
fifth grade. Each word in the entire list was 
assigned to the grade agreed upon by the majority 
of authors investigated, although in some cases the 
placing appeared to be pedagogically unsound. 
Some words could be classified very readily because 
of the close agreement as to where they belonged ; 
when there was an exact division of opinion as to 
the location of a word, this word was placed in the 
lowest grade mentioned. As was expected, most 
of the words fell into the primary grade lists, a 
considerably smaller number into the intermediate 
grade lists, and comparatively few into the grammar 
grade lists. The distribution was as follows: 318 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 85 

words in the second grade, 342 in the third, 216 in 
the fourth, 164 in the fifth, 135 in the sixth, 96 in 
the seventh, and 14 in the eighth. 



Suggested Minimal Spelling List, Arranged by 
Grades 





(Second Grade) 








318 words 




add 


been 


brother 


cost 


after 


bear 


burn 


could 


ago 


bed 


but 


count 


air 


before 


buy 


cow 


alone 


beg 


by 


cross 


also 


begin 


call 


cup 


am 


belong 


came 


cut 


among 


best 


candy 


dark 


an 


better 


card 


dead 


ankle 


bill 


care 


dear 


are 


bird 


cart 


December 


arm 


black 


case 


deep 


as 


block 


cat 


did 


ask 


blue 


catch 


dirt 


asleep 


boat 


cent 


do 


at 


body- 


chair 


done 


ate 


boil 


change 


doctor 


August 


book 


chicken 


dog 


aunt 


both 


church 


dollar 


away 


box 


clerk 


don't 


bad 


boy 


coat 


door 


ball 


bread 


cold 


down 


bank 


brick 


comb 


draw 


basket 


bright 


come 


dress 


be 


bring 


copy 


drink 



86 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



drop 


from 


head 


late 


drowned 


front 


hear 


lay 


dust 


full 


heard 


lazy 


each 


game 


heart 


leaf 


ear 


garden 


help 


leg 


early 


get 


her 


lesson 


east 


getting 


here 


let 


even 


girl 


high 


letter 


ever 


give 


hill 


long 


every 


go 


him 


make 


eye 


goes 


himself 


making 


face 


going 


his 


me 


fair 


gone 


home 


meet 


faU 


gold 


horse 


men 


far 


good 


house 


more 


fast 


got 


how 


mother 


father 


grass 


hungry 


mouse 


feed 


great 


hurt 


mouth 


feet 


green 


I 


my 


fence 


ground 


ice 


near 


few 


grow 


if 


never 


fill 


guess 


ill 


new 


find 


had 


in 


next 


fine 


half 


into 


nice 


first 


hair 


invite 


no 


fix 


hand 


is 


nose 


flower 


hang 


it 


not 


fly 


happy 


jump 


of 


fowl 


hard 


keep 


off 


foot 


has 


kind 


on 


for 


hat 


knew 


one 


found 


have 


knife 


only 


freeze 


having 


laid 


our 


fresh 


he 


large 


out 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 87 



own 


shoe 


the 


we 


paper 


shut 


theater 


well 


pencil 


sick 


them 


went 


pink 


sister 


then 


were 


push 


sit 


these 


west 


put 


six 


they 


what 


read 


sky 


this 


white 


red 


snow 


three 


who 


road 


so 


time 


will 


root 


soap 


to 


wind 


rose 


store 


told 


window 


round 


story 


took 


word 


run 


study 


top 


would 


said 


tail 


two 


write 


saw 


take 


under 


writing 


say 


teeth 


up 


wrote 


school 


ten 


us 


yes 


seed 


than 


was 


you 


seven 


thank 


wash 


young 


shall 


that 


water 


your 


she 










(Third Grade) 






342 words 




about 


almost 


April 


bath 


above 


along 


around 


because 


across 


always 


arrest 


become 


act 


animal 


attend 


behind 


addition 


answer 


autumn 


beneath 


afraid 


answers 


avoid 


beside 


again 


any 


baby 


between 


all 


anything 


back 


big 


alley 


appear 


banana 


bite 


allow 


apple 


barn 


blossom 



88 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



board 


common 


farther 


June 


born 


company 


feel 


July 


bottom 


control 


fellow 


just 


bought 


cook 


field 


kill 


branch 


corner 


fierce 


kitchen 


break 


cotton 


figure 


knee 


breakfast 


cough 


floor 


knock 


breath 


cousin 


flour 


knot 


broke 


daily 


fond 


know 


brown 


danger 


fortune 


lady 


build 


date 


friend 


last 


built 


daughter 


fruit 


laugh 


bundle 


deserve 


gave 


learn 


bury 


die 


glad 


leather 


busy 


dinner 


good-by 


leave 


butter 


dish 


grade 


left 


button 


divide 


grain 


lemon 


cake 


double 


grocery 


lightning 


car 


drive 


hall 


Hke 


caught 


duty 


heavy 


listen 


center 


earn. 


herself 


little 


chase 


earth 


hold 


live 


child 


eat 


hole 


look 


children 


egg 


hoarse 


lose 


chimney 


else 


honest 


lot 


circle 


empty 


hope 


loud 


city 


end 


hour 


love 


clean 


enough 


hundred 


low 


climb 


except 


inch 


machine 


close 


excuse 


inquire 


many 


cloth 


explain 


intend 


mark 


coarse 


fail 


iron 


master 


color 


family 


island 


measure 


coming 


farm 


jail 


meat 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 89 



mice 


often 


reach 


sorry 


might 


old 


ready 


south 


mile 


once 


recess 


speak 


milk 


open 


remember 


spell 


minute 


orange 


ribbon 


spring 


miss 


other 


ride 


stand 


mistake 


ought 


right 


star 


mistress 


over 


ring 


stay 


Monday- 


pair 


room 


still 


money 


parlor 


rough 


stood 


month 


part 


running 


stopped 


morning 


party 


safe 


street 


move 


people 


Saturday 


sugar 


much 


perhaps 


scissors 


suit 


music 


pick 


see 


summer 


must 


picture 


sell 


sun 


myself 


pie 


send 


Sunday 


name 


piece 


sent 


supper 


naughty- 


place 


September 


sure 


need 


plain 


severe 


swim 


news 


play 


snake 


table 


nickel 


pleasant 


ship 


talk 


night 


point 


short 


taste 


ninth 


poor 


should 


teacher 


noise 


pound 


show 


tell 


noon 


pretty 


side 


themselves 


north 


prompt 


sing 


there 


nothing 


quart 


sleep 


thing 


notice 


quarter 


sleigh 


think 


now 


quick 


small 


third 


nut 


quiet 


sold 


thought 


obey 


quite 


some 


thread 


o'clock 


race 


something 


threw 


October 


raise 


soon 


through 



90 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



throw 


ugly 


way 


with 


Thursday 


uncle 


wear 


without 


tire 


until 


week 


woman 


tired 


upon 


wet 


whose 


to-day 


use 


wheel 


wood 


toward 


used 


when 


work 


town 


vacation 


where 


worth 


traction 


very 


whether 


wrap 


tree 


voice 


which 


wrapped 


truly 


wagon 


while 


written 


truth 


wait 


whisper 


yard 


try 


walk 


whistle 


year 


tried 


wall 


whole 


yellow 


Tuesday 


want 


why 


yesterday 


turn 


warm 


winter 


yet 


twelve 


watch 


wish 






(Fourth Grade) 






216 words 




able 


breathe 


collar 


escape 


account 


burglar 


corn 


expect 


ache 


bushel 


cottage 


failure 


according 


cabbage 


country 


fashion 


age 


canoe 


dentist 


fear 


alarm 


capital 


depot 


feather 


allowed 


carriage 


desert 


felt 


angel 


chain 


discover 


fight 


attack 


chocolate 


dismiss 


finish 


author 


circus 


ditch 


fire 


beginning 


civil 


division 


food 


believe 


class 


dream 


form 


biscuit 


club 


engine 


forward 


blanket 


coffee 


enjoy 


furnace 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 91 



furniture 


metal 


pumpkin 


station 


grammar 


middle 


quarrel 


stone 


guard 


mind 


question 


stop 


guide 


mine 


rain 


straight 


gun 


mischief 


rapid 


strong 


hammer 


most 


reason 


such 


healthy 


mountain 


receive 


sweep 


heat 


neighbor 


recent 


taught 


history- 


neither 


regard 


teach 


hoping 


ninety 


remain 


term 


human 


number 


roar 


thick 


idea 


orchard 


roof 


those 


important 


outside 


same 


though 


Indian 


palace 


saucer 


thousand 


inside 


parade 


scholar 


throat 


justice 


park 


second 


thunder 


kept 


pass 


seem 


together 


king 


past 


sentence 


to-morrow 


labor 


pay 


separate 


tongue 


land 


peace 


set 


too 


lawn 


period 


several 


track 


life 


piano 


shadow 


train 


hght 


pigeon 


sew 


travel 


lying 


please 


shore 


trial 


line 


pleasure 


shoulder 


trip 


linen 


pledge 


since 


trouble 


lonesome 


pocket 


sir 


umbrella 


manage 


poem 


skin 


unless 


man 


poison 


slide 


village 


March 


poHce 


smoke 


visit 


market 


post 


soldier 


visitor 


matter 


potato 


son 


waist 


may 


practice 


stairs 


war 


mean 


present 


start 


weather 



92 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



weigh 


won 


wonderful 


wreck 


win 


wonder 


world 


wrong 


women 










(Fifth Grade) 






164 words 




address 


collect 


fever 


nature 


afternoon 


column 


fifth 


nephew 


against 


comfort 


finger 


none 


agreeable 


concern 


forest 


November 


already 


concert 


frightened 


object 


although 


couple 


glass 


occupy 


angry 


course 


government 


ocean 


anxious 


court 


handkerchief 


opinion 


army 


cushion 


heaven 


orphan 


arrival 


damage 


height 


ourselves 


article 


dangerous 


hospital 


page 


attention 


debt 


instead 


passenger 


automobile 


defeat 


interest 


person 


auto 


describe 


jealous 


persuade 


awful 


destroy 


journey 


picnic 


bathe 


different 


judge 


pin 


beat 


direction 


language 


plant 


beautiful 


disappoint 


lawyer 


position 


bicycle 


dispute 


length 


pour 


birth 


doubt 


level 


press 


blow 


edge 


loose 


price 


bruise 


equator 


mail 


problem 


business 


everything 


match 


promise 


carpet 


exercise 


maybe 


proper 


cause 


expense 


medicine 


railroad 


cement 


familiar 


merely 


rather 


chance 


famous 


modern 


real 


coast 


favorite 


narrow 


reply 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 93 



rise 


settle 


suggest 


usual 


river 


shepherd 


supply 


vegetable 


roll 


sight 


suppose 


view 


saddle 


sincerely 


surprise 


wake 


sail 


size 


tear 


waste 


scratch 


song 


telegraph 


wave 


sea 


square 


terrible 


weak 


secret 


state 


Thanksgiving Wednesday 


section 


steal 


ticket 


wide 


select 


stock 


to-night 


within 


sense 


strange 


true 


wound 


serious 


succeed 


union 


woolen 


serve 


success 


useful 






(Sixth Grade) 






135 words 




absent 


calendar 


factory 


material 


accept 


captain 


favor 


mere 


acquaintance 


catalogue 


finally 


museum 


advantage 


certain 


foreign 


national 


advice 


charge 


freight 


necessary 


altogether 


citizen 


further 


newspaper 


appetite 


clear 


general 


note 


application 


climate 


genuine 


oblige 


arrival 


coal 


glorious 


occasion 


assist 


contain 


guest 


odor 


assistance 


decision 


imagine 


office 


attempt 


diamond 


immediately 


order 


avenue 


dictionary 


importance 


parentage 


baggage 


difference 


impossible 


particular 


balance 


due 


innocent 


patient 


breast 


during 


jewel 


pavement 


brief 


entertain 


least 


peculiar 


cabin 


extreme 


luncheon 


physical 



94 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



pity 


rate 


search 


temperature 


plan 


really 


season 


their 


plenty 


receipt 


sheriff 


thermometer 


political 


refer 


shine 


thin 


possible 


relief 


sign 


thorough 


power 


repair 


silver 


trust 


prefer 


report 


special 


unable 


principal 


request 


spend 


understand 


principle 


restaurant 


spoil 


variety 


print 


result 


spread 


valuable 


prison 


return 


steady 


volume 


private 


review 


stomach 


wander 


punish 


route 


strength 


weight 


purpose 


scene 


student 


wife 


pursue 


scenery 


telephone 


wire 




(Seventh Grade) 






96 words 




accident 


catarrh 


deal 


issue 


acknowledge 


cemetery 


death 


judgment 


advertise 


century 


decide 


knowledge 


amount 


character 


desire 


license 


apply 


check 


disappear 


manufacture 


appoint 


college 


distance 


marriage 


appreciate 


command 


education 


mention 


arrange 


committee 


effect 


minister 


arrangement 


complete 


effort 


moment 


association 


compliment 


experience 


mortgage 


assure 


conduct 


gymnasium 


nuisance 


bargain 


consider 


honor 


obtain 


benefit 


continue 


illustrate 


offer 


bouquet 


convenient 


information 


opportunity 


campaign 


criticize 


interrupt 


opposite 


candidate 


cylinder 


invitation 


perfect 



SPECIAL LISTS AND 


HOW TO USE THEM 95 


personal recommend 


service 


subject 


physician reference 


signature sufficient 


practical relative 


similar 


superintendent 


prairie religion 


single 


system 


preparation remark 


sleeve 


tariff 


prepare remedy 


society 


therefore 


privilege salary 


sole 


usually 


recognize secretary 


splendid 


yield 


(Eighth Grade) 




14 words 




affair 




forenoon 


allege 




member 


argument 




proceed 


attendance 




public 


camphor 




secure 


corpse 




treasure 


department 




vacant 



The foregoing list of words is not meant to dis- 
place the Spelling Book. It is rather a scale by 
which to measure the content of the book. Purpose of 
These words are not all the words which a *^® ^^^* 
book should contain, but a book should certainly 
contain all these words. 

This list may be used to very practical ends in 
the latter part of the year by every teacher of 
spelling. It can be used, also, as the basis for Friday 
afternoon spelling matches. The Hsts of words for 
special tests may be taken from it. The children 
may be given the Hst and told that when they have 
completed the eighth grade, this is the smallest 



96 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

number of words that they should be able to spell 
correctly, without even having to think about the 
order of the letters. 

The teacher should give written tests including 
a large number of words to discover those words 
which the children cannot spell. To have the child 
use the words in sentences is preferred to mere list 
speUing. When the teacher has discovered the 
troublesome words, and when the child is made 
aware of his own limitations, then some definite 
teaching and careful and persistent study may be 
done in connection with the words that are misspelled. 
A child should not be required to study words that 
he already knows, but rather those words that he 
cannot spell. Thus, there will be motive for study 
and pleasure in the work, for the child himself will 
see the necessity for and benefit of his study. 

The testing should begin with the words suggested 
for the grades below that in which the child is lo- 
cated, and should work up to his present classifi- 
cation. He will discover the words that he should 
know but does not. When these are discovered, 
the teacher should work with the child according 
to the methods of teaching discussed earlier in 
this book. It is believed that if the teacher will 
devote about a month at the close of each year to 
such work as is here suggested, the results will 
amply repay her for the time spent. 

The inter-school written and oral spelling match, 



SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 97 

discussed in a later section of this book, is one of the 
best means by which to motivate good work and 
is valuable for the purpose of reviewing the work of 
the year and fixing definitely in the minds of the 
children those words that everyone should know 
how to spell automatically. 

Summary 

Many scientific investigations have been made in 
connection with spelling. In this chapter we have dis- 
cussed two of those that have resulted in special lists of 
important words : 

1. We have discussed Dr. F. Jones' list, commonly 
known as ''One Hundred Spelling Demons," because 
it includes words that are frequently used and most often 
misspelled. 

2. We have discussed H. C. Pryor's "A Suggested 
Minimal Spelling List," because it has been compiled from 
a number of other reputable lists. 

Such lists as the two discussed in this chapter should 
be used by the teacher as guides to direct her effort. 
They may also be used by the class for purposes of review. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. What phase of the study made by Jones interests 
you most? What surprises does it contain for you? 

2. Test your school by means of the "One Hundred 
Spelling Demons " to see if the results justify this name 
for those words. 

3. Does Pryor's " A Suggested Minimal Spelling List " 
contain all the words which you think such a list should 
contain? Wherein does it seem most limited? What 



98 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

method would you use to determine what words should 
be added ? 

4. How do you account for the fact that there are so 
many words in the lists for the lower grades and so few 
in those for the higher grades, in the Pry or List ? 

5. Compare the words assigned by Pryor to some one 
grade with the words listed in your adopted text for the 
same grade. To what extent do the two lists agree? 



CHAPTER V 
SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 

Important as are the words that are found in a 
good speUing book and important as are the words 
that are presented in any of the well-known spelling 
lists, the teacher must bear in mind that they do not 
include all the words that her children need to know 
how to spell. Obviously no spelling book would 
contain very many local words unless it were one 
meant purely for local use. But no ready-made 
list will serve the teacher and the school nearly so 
well as will a list which the school itself makes. 

The original lists may be of different kinds and 
may have a variety of purposes in addition to the 
purpose of teaching spelling. 

The first and most important original list is that 
which each child makes for himself. This may in- 
clude words which he finds difficulty in original 
spelling, words which he is adding to his ^^^^^ 
vocabulary, words with certain peculiarities, and 
words that are names of types of things in which 
he is interested. 

Next in importance is the Class List or the School 
List which represents some special interest of the 

99 



100 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

group for a particular time. This list should be 
made under the white heat of enthusiasm in some 
Class or specialized interest. There should be a 
School fixed time at which the list must be com- 
^^^*^ pleted. Some particular phase of the sub- 

ject should be considered each day. All members of 
the class should contribute to the list. For a time 
the regular spelling assignment for each pupil should 
be to bring to class as many words as possible 
bearing upon the subject. When the lists have been 
completed, then there should be a season of mem- 
orization and testing. The best way, perhaps, to 
secure the maximum of interested attention and 
at the same time to provide for repetition, so neces- 
sary in spelling, is to review the work in a spelling 
bee at the close of the special study. 

Through such a Class or School List, any special 
interest of community, county, or state may be 
studied. The aim should be very definite in order 
to get the best results. 

The rural training schools connected with the 
Oregon Normal School, while under the direction 
of one of the authors, made a Willamette Valley 
Spelling Book. The purpose of this book was to 
see what agricultural words were needed partic- 
ularly by the farmers of that vaUey. A similar 
experiment has been conducted in Brown County, 
South Dakota, in connection with the supervision 
of rural schools. 



SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 101 
THE BROWN COUNTY SPELLING BOOK 

During the month of December, 1919, sixteen 
schools undertook to make a Brown County SpeUing 
Book. Ten days were set aside for collecting the 
words that related to ten different subjects of special 
interest in Brown County. After the words were 
collected, the pupils were allowed ten days in which 
to learn them in preparation for a big spelling bee 
held in the town of Warner on December 19. Those 
words are given below, not because they are of any 
special worth to those living outside Brown County, 
but to illustrate how this type of work may be done. 

The children spelled the words and then used 
them in sentences which stated actual facts. Sug- 
gestive sentences and phrases are given with the 
words under the first topic to show how this work 
was done. The reader will see how similar sen- 
tences could be made in which all the other words 
of the list might be used. 

No. I. — Words and Phrases Dealing with the History of 
Brown County and South Dakota 



1. 


Clarence Johnson 


. Clarence Johnson was one of 
the first settlers of Brown 
County. 


2. 


William Young . 


. William Young was his friend. 


3. 


Hattie Young 


. Hattie Young was the sister 
of William Young who came 
with him. 


4. 


frontiersmen . . 


. They were good frontiersmen. 



102 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



5. Missouri River . 



6. trail .... 

7. Fort Pierre . 

8. Fort Sisseton . 
9. ' Military Road 

10. first home . . 

11. established 

12. parallel 1 . . 

13. crosses J . . 

14. log cabin 1 . . 

15. settlers J . . 

16. accident . . 

17. incident . . 

18. plow . . . 



19. James C. Lindboe 



20. dugout . . . 

21. public meeting 



22. post office . . 

23. Columbia . . 



The Missouri River is the largest 
river in-South Dakota. 

They came along the old trail. 

Fort Pierre was the first fort 
built in the state. 

Fort Sisseton was another well- 
known fort. 

Military Road is another name 
for the old trail. 

The first home in South Dakota 
was a log cabin. 

Ordway was established in 1887. 

The forty-sixth parallel crosses 
the county. 

The early settlers lived in log 
cabins. 

They suffered no accidents dur- 
ing the first year. 

There were no unusual in- 
cidents during the year. 

A ploio was used in Brown 
County in 1880 for the first 
time. 

James C, Lindboe is the name 
of the first child born in the 
county. 

He lived in a dugout. 

The first public meeting was 
held in Brown County on 
July 4, 1879. 

The first post office was estab- 
lished at Columbia. 

Columbia is the site of the 
first post office in the county. 



SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 103 



24. James Humphrey 

25. Brown County . 



27. 


election .... 


28. 


Brown Brothers . . 


29. 


automobile . . . 


30. 


Mr. Baird .... 


3L 
32. 


airplane . . . . 
Thomas A. Boyden 


33. 


oxen 


34. 


population . . . 


35. 


Ordway . . . . 


36. 


Aberdeen . . . . 


37. 


railroad . . . . 


38. 


Chicago . . . . 


39. 
40. 


Milwaukee . . . 
Saint Paul . . . 



41. James River 



James Humphrey established 
Rondell in 1880. 

Brown County is a county in the 
state of South Dakota. 

It was organized in 1880. 

The first election was held in 
1880. 

Brown Brothers owned the first 
automobile in the county. 

We have thousands of automo- 
biles now. 

Mr. Baird owned the first air- 
plane in the county. 

We shall all have airplanes soon. 

Thomas A. Boyden was the first 
merchant in the county. 

Oxen drew the first wagon that 
came to the county. 

The population was 25,786 for 
the county in 1910. 

Ordway was one of the impor- 
tant towns of the state in 
early days. 

Aberdeen is the best town in 
the state, we think. 

The C. M. & St. P. is our most 
important railroad. 

Chicago is the commercial cen- 
ter of the Middle West. 

Milwaukee is a famous city. 

Saint Paul is one of the twin 
cities. 

James River is the only river 
in this county. 



104 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



42. Mistress Seaman 



Mistress Seaman was one of the 
first teachers of the county. 



No. II. — Words and Phrases Dealing with Brown County 

Soil 

9. stratum 

10. strata 

11. agricultural 

12. fertile 

13. alkali 

14. porous 

15. valuable 

and Phrases Dealing with Brown 
County Crops 

14. beans 

15. pumpkin 

16. squash 

17. carrot 

18. peas 

19. onion 

20. timothy 

21. brome grass 

22. pigeon grass 

23. clover 

24. sweet clover 

25. foliage 

26. tomatoes 



1. black loam 

2. sandy loam 

3. gumbo 

4. glacial deposits 

5. gravel 

6. productive 

7. clay 

8. subsoil 

No. III. — Words 

1. wheat 

2. oats 

3. corn 

4. barley 

5. spelt 

6. millet 

7. aKalfa 

8. forage 

9. Dent com 

10. rye 

11. flax 

12. potatoes 

13. beets 






No. IV. — Words and Phrases Deahng with Crop Pests in 
Brown County 

1. hot winds 3. smut 

2. rust 4. hail 



SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 105 



5. 


gopher 


6. 


squirrels 


7. 


grasshopper 


8. 


crickets 


9. 


cut worms 


10. 


potato bug 


11. 


potato scab 


12. 


cabbage worm 


13. 


quack grass 


14. 


wild oats 



No. V. 



15. wild mustard 

16. sunflowers 

17. Canadian thistle 

18. drought 

19. fungi 

20. mildew 

21. potato blight 

22. Hessian fly 

23. tumble weed 

24. mortgage 



Words and Phrases that Relate to Some Allies of 
Brown County Farmers 



1. 


hawks 


2. 


meadow larks 


3. 


robins 


4. 


magpies 


5. 


swallows 


6. 


thrushes 


7. 


flickers 


8. 


pheasant 


9. 


prairie chicken 


10. 


pollen 


11. 


bees 


12. 


ants 


13. 


cats 


14. 


dogs 


15. 


foxes 



16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 



24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 

28. 
29. 
30. 



snake 

toads 

bacteria 

inoculate 

Bordeaux mixture 

formalin 

22. fungicide 

23. humus 
Paris green 

cow testing association 
parcel post 
split log drag 
snow 
rain 
sunshine 



No. VI. — Words Dealing with the Pure-bred Animals and 
Fowls in Brown County 

1. Horses: 2. Hogs: 3. Chickens: 

Percheron Poland China Plymouth Rock* 

Belgian Berkshire Wyandotte 



106 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



[. Horses: 2. 


Hogs: 3. Chickens: 


Clydesdale 


Duroc-Jersey Rhode Island Red 


thoroughbred 


Chester White Orpington 


mule 


Yorkshire Leghorn 




Hampshire Buff Cochin 




Langshan 


L Cattle: 5. 


Turkeys: 8. Descriptive words: 


Durham 


a. black draft 


Shorthorn 


b. bronze roadster 


Hereford 


dual purpose 


Guernsey 6. 


Geese : hardy 


Holstein 


a. Toulouse rustler 


Brown Swiss 


h. African docile 


Galloway 


vicious 


Aberdeen 7. 


Ducks : gentle 


Angus 


a. Pekin sensible 


Ayrshire 


h. Indian prolific 


Holstein- 


Runners stubborn 


Friesian 


milch 




beef 




pedigreed 


^0. VII. — Words and Phrases Relating to an Up-to-date 




Brown County Barn 


1. electric lights 


10. silo 


2. water system 


11. ensilage 


3. stanchion 


12. automatic water bowls 


4. cement floor 


13. salt dishes 


5. hay sling 


14. ventilation 


6. elevator 


15. light 


7. electric currycomb 16. granary 


8. feed bins 


17. tool shed 


9. cupola 


18. haymow 



SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 107 



No, 


. VIII. — Words and Phrases Relating to an Up-to-date 




Brown County Farm 


L 


garage 




22. 


fertilizer 


2. 


Ford 




23. 


barnyard manure 


3. 


electric motor 




24. 


mulch 


4. 


gravel roads 




25. 


farm accounting 


5. 


cement walks 




26. 


insecticide 


6. 


artesian well 




27. 


legumes 


7. 


water system 




28. 


Babcock milk tester 


8. 


pressure tank 




29. 


balanced ration 


9. 


machine shed 




30. 


germination test 


10. 


ice house 




31. 


silage 


11. 


shredder 




32. 


tile drain 


12. 


harvester 




33. 


garden 


13. 


gasoline engine 




34. 


brooder 


14. 


horse power 




35. 


bulletins 


15. 


kerosene 




36. 


candling eggs 


16. 


cultivator 




37. 


college extension 


17. 


header 




38. 


conservation 


18. 


binder 




39. 


county agent 


19. 


formaldehyde 




40. 


diversified farming 


20. 


irrigation 




41. 


bank credit 


21. 


rotation 








No. 


. IX. — Words and Phrases Relating to an Up-to-date 




' 


Country Home 


1. 


furnace 




8. 


porcelain bathtub 


2. 


electric engine 




9. 


sun porch 


3. 


telephone 




10. 


piano 


4. 


sewer system 




11. 


victrola 


5. 


septic tank 




12. 


indoor toilet 


6. 


electric washer, 


fan. 


13. 


motor power 




iron, stove 




14. 


Rural Free Delivery 


7. 


cement basement 




15. 


running water 



108 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



16. 


linoleum 


22. vacuum cleaner 


17. 


standard pictures 


23. ventilation 


18. 


newspapers 


24. flowers 


19. 


^'Farm Journal' ' 


25. balanced meals 


20. 


''Good Housekeeping" 


26. kitchen accounting 


21. 


County Health Nurse 




No. X. — Words Relating to an Up-to-date Brc 




County Community 


1. 


community church 


8. brass band 


2. 


consolidated schools 


9. Boy Scouts 


3. 


cooperation 


10. Camp Fire Girls 


4. 


fairs 


11. traveUng library 


5. 


housekeepers' club 


12. grange 


6. 


literary society 


13. motor bus 


7. 


choral society 


14. Farm Bureau 



We have heard a good deal about spelling being 
taught incidentally with other subjects, but we have 
Value of heard practically nothing of other subjects 
the List being taught incidentally with spelling. A 
^tion^of perusal of the foregoing list will show just 
other how many other subjects can be taught 

incidentally with such a homemade list of 
words as the above. One farmer remarked: "I 
have had at least one child in the school each year, 
for four years now, who was supposed to study 
agriculture out of a book, but they have learned 
more agriculture in the last ten days and taught me 
more than we all have learned in the previous four 
years.'' Another farmer said: "Say, Mister, my 



SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 109 

youngsters haven't been studying at home for a 
long time. I supposed that it had gone out of style 
to study at home o' nights any more hke they used 
to in the old days, but bless my life if it hasn't come 
back with a whiz since you have been making that 
Brown County Spelling Book. Why — they have 
rooted through all of the old farm journals that have 
been lying around the house for years. The first 
time the library's been opened in years was this week. 
Those youngsters keep me and the Missus ran- 
sacking our brains to recall what happened when 
we first came to this county twenty-five years ago." 
Another farmer said: "Say, what are you trying 
to do? Put the city in the country? Since my 
chaps have been making that Brown County 
Spelling Book they tell me twenty times a day that 
something around here is not up to the twentieth 
century standard." 

The above illustrations are sufficient to show how 
the simple work of the spelling class had influenced 
the life of the home. The parents were participat- 
ing actively in the work of the school. Home life, 
agriculture, social activities, history, geography, 
morals, etc., were being taught in connection with 
the making of a mere list of words to be used in a 
spelling match. 

This idea is capable of almost limitless applica- 
tion. Geography, history, industry, home life, 
church life, community activities, and many other 



no GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

subjects could be studied in an introductory or 
review fashion in connection with speUing. 

To illustrate the use to which such work can be 
put, suppose a teacher in the state of Maine were 
to say to her spelling class: "For to-morrow, I 
want you to bring to class the names of all the rivers 
in the state that you can find.'^ Among the words 
would be Penobscot; Kennebec, Androscoggin, Alla- 
gash, and Saco. For the pupil to study the words 
in this way would be vastly better than for the 
teacher to choose those same words from a regular 
spelling book, or for her to pick them out of the 
geography. The children like to contribute to the 
list by their own efforts and when this is done in 
pursuance of some object in which they are inter- 
ested, they have two interests that lead them on 
instead of one. 

This type of spelling work should come as a change, 
a vacation from regular spelling work with the book. 
About one month out of the year could be devoted 
profitably to work of this sort. 

Summary 

The spelling lists which the teacher and the children 
compile for themselves can be made of incalculable worth. 
The lists that the child makes of the words which he 
misses from day to day, the lists that he makes in which 
he groups words with common characteristics, or of words 
that relate to one of his special interests, are for him the 
most important kinds of lists. 



SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 111 

In this chapter the attention has been directed to a Hst 
that was made by the children in a certain selected district 
of Brown County, South Dakota, during the year 1919-20. 
We give this as a type. Such a list can be made by any 
teacher and group of children in any locahty. Such a 
study will provide an opportunity to famiharize the 
children with some phase of life in the community in 
which the school is located, and will help them to learn 
to spell the words common to that locality. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Have all of the children of your school make 
individual lists of all the words they miss during one 
month. How many words are common to all the mem- 
bers of each class? To any two classes? To the entire 
school? What conclusion do you make from the results 
of the comparisons? 

2. What one interest in your community could be 
studied most effectively according to the plan used in the 
Brown County experiment? 

3. Check the Brown County list to see what words in 
it should become a part of the permanent writing vocabu- 
lary of your pupils. If you had been one of the teachers 
in the experimenting group, how would you have dealt 
with the words which you did not consider valuable as a 
part of the writing vocabulary? 

4. Would you justify the making of such a Hst purely 
on the basis of its worth in fixing habits of speUing? 
Why? 



CHAPTER VI 
DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 

In Part I of this book we discussed some of the 
psychological principles underiying the teaching of 
spelling. There are other psychological factors, 
though, that must be recognized and borne in mind. 
We wish at this point to call the attention of the 
teacher to the factors that relate to the child's love 
for play and his responses to others in his group. 

One of the original tendencies of man is to play. 
He may play with things or persons. He gets 
pleasure out of things if he can manipulate them, 
change them, build them up, take them apart, 
rearrange them, destroy them. He gets more 
pleasure out of persons because his play nature is 
given larger scope. He may tease, bully, or submit 
to a person. He may compete with and master a 
person. His desire for companionship, his pleasure 
at doing what he sees others do, his satisfaction at 
seeing his own accomplishments imitated by others, 
are all given exercise when he is associated with 
persons. Practically all the devices that are in- 
cluded in this book are based upon these psycho- 

112 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 113 

logical characteristics in man : his love for manipula- 
tion, association, and competition. 

The child's nature is the nearest approach we 
have to the original nature of man. The child 
spends practically all his life in play till he enters 
school. In the past we have too often felt and 
have made the child feel that all play must stop 
when he enters school. When we insist upon this, 
we are trying to dam up a channel which the ages 
have dug. 

Psychologists tell us that there are three ways 
with which to deal with original tendencies : (1) crush 
them, (2) direct them into new channels, (3) develop 
them. There are practically none of man's original 
tendencies and instincts that we should crush. 
There are many that we should develop and many 
that we should guide into new channels. Play is 
one of the tendencies that should be guided into 
right channels and cultivated to produce the best 
results. Children get their clearest initial im- 
pressions, do their most attentive work, repeat 
action or speeches more often with interested at- 
tention, and apply what is learned more quickly 
and with more satisfactory results when they are 
playing than at any other time. This is our only ex- 
cuse for introducing the following games and devices 
into a book that is designed as a scientific inspira- 
tion and a practical help to teachers of spelling. 
Our one word of caution is that the teacher must 



114 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

not make the game her hobby. She must not feel 
that there should never be a time when the children 
are asked to take work as work. She should rather 
feel that the game is a sort of rest from work. 
Play itself would lose its meaning and pleasure if 
all life were play. '^Moderation in everything/^ 
then, should be the teacher's aim. 

Small children are very fond of pictures. They 
like to construct things. They like to collect things. 
They like to give to inanimate objects char- 
Repre- acteristics of animate objects. Their 
sentations ]^qq]^q^ pictures, and playthings are to them 
almost what persons are to older people. For these 
reasons, the following devices are good in the lower 
grades. 

Take a picture of a house, barn, yard, field, apple, 
peach, leaf, tree, or any other object that will sug- 
1. Objects g^^^ t^ ^^^ pupils a number of associated 
Pictured words. Write the words within the outer 
Words border of the picture and have the pupils 
Inside study from this. Use the picture at the 
recitation time. The children may make the draw- 
ing after the class for seat work and write in the 
words as a penmanship lesson. 

This device could be extended by not having any 
particular list of words, but by merely putting the 
picture on the board. Then have the children pre- 
pare the list of words that the picture suggests. 
They may bring them to class. For the first recita- 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 115 

tion, the class listens to the reading of the various 
lists. They hear each child spell his list of words. 
If any words have been misspelled, these should be 
memorized in their proper form for the next lesson. 
The picture may be kept on the board until the list 
of words has been completely learned. 

Special spelling booklets may be made for the 
various months or seasons of the year. These books 
should contain the words that have been 2. Seasonal 
spelled during the period and the cover Booklets 
design should be one appropriate to the month or 
season. The cover should be the product of the 
child's own originality and creation. This will 
serve to stimulate and motivate not only the work 
in speUing but that in drawing also. 

VISUALIZING 

In Part I, we have already emphasized the im- 
portance of having the child learn through as many 
senses as possible. It was also pointed out that 
the most important of these senses in learning to 
spell is the sense of sight. Practice, therefore, in 
visualizing the words needs to be given to the 
children. Here are some devices that are usable 
for this purpose. The teacher can improvise others 
if she desires. 

1. Write the words on the board very plainly. 
Have the children spell the word letter by letter. 
Then have the children close their eyes. As each 



116 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

child is tapped on the head, he gives the letter that 
is needed until the word being spelled is complete. 

2. Write the words on the board. Have the 
children look at them. Then direct the children to 
rest their heads on their desks with their eyes closed. 
Cover a word or erase a word and ask the children 
to look up and spell the word that is missing. 

3. Assign a number of words for the lesson to be 
learned. When the lesson is prepared, have one or 
more of the children go to the board and write a cer- 
tain number of the words. Have those who remained 
at the seats go to the board and write all the words 
which the first group failed to write. If the lesson 
is short, aU members of the class might be sent to 
the board at one time. To reproduce a list of words 
without a book calls for clear and effective visualizing. 

4. To build words on a given stem or with a 
certain initial or final letter or syllable calls for good 
visualization. Take such a syllable as an, am, ail, 
ful, ly, con, or ex, and see how many words can be 
built upon it within a certain number of minutes. 
If the work ends at this point we have a language 
lesson and not a spelling lesson. Of the words thus 
built we should select the misspelled ones for the 
next lesson. 

GUESSES 

Children like to guess. "Guess What'' is one of 
their favorite games. This can be used to good 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 117 

effect in school. It calls for clear visualization and 
it secures attentive, interested repetition. The 
following two illustrations show how this may be 
done: 

1. The lesson consists of six words : kitchen, 
sugar, kettle, stove, fire, candy. Sue is selected as 
the leader. She stands and says, "Jane, I am 
thinking of a word." Jane rises and says, "Is it 
k-e-t-t-1-e, kettle?'' Sue replies, "It is not 
k-e-t-t-1-e, kettle. '^ John rises and says: "Is it 
c-a-n-d-y, candy ? '' Sue says : "Yes, it is c-a-n-d-y, 
candy." Then John becomes the leader. Thus the 
words may be gone over a number of times imtil 
they are well learned. 

2. The next device is just a shght variation of the 
one given above. Suppose there is a longer Hst 
of words, the same group of cliildren, and the same 
goal in view — drilling upon the group of words 
until the spelling of them becomes automatic. In 
this case the child leading would say, "I am think- 
ing of a word that begins with f." Some one would 
rise and say, "Is it f-i-r-e, fire?" The leader would 
then reply, "Yes, it is f-i-r-e, fire." This device 
should be used only when the list is much longer 
than in the ordinary lesson, for the beginning letter 
is such a good cue that the word in question would 
be guessed the first time and thus prevent the de- 
sired amount of drill. This device is good for a 
weekly or monthly review. 



118 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

REWARDS 

The question of rewards for school work has ever 
been a mooted one. It is now quite generally 
agreed that rewards that have a money value in 
themselves should not be given for excellence in 
ordinary school work. But we must all realize 
that all work is done for some sort of reward and 
whatever reward is offered should be such that each 
member of the class has a chance to secure it. The 
reward that is most potent in its influence upon 
conduct and effort is perhaps that which we receive 
in the form of appreciation or approval from others. 
Here again we find the original instincts or tendencies 
manifesting themselves — the instinct of apprecia- 
tion of the approval of others and the instinct of 
love of superiority over others and a recognition 
by others of that same superiority. We give below 
a few illustrations of devices that make use of these 
original tendencies to a limited degree : 

1. The teacher draws a picture of a large pumpkin, 
watermelon, apple, peach, pie, or other object, on the 
board. She indicates that it is divided into pieces. 
On each piece of the object pictured she writes some 
word of the lesson. The game is to see who can spell all 
the words. Every child who spells correctly all the words 
in the lesson gets one of the pieces with his name written 
on that piece. 

2. One of the oldest and most common rewards for 
class excellence is the custom of giving honor marks to a 
child who stands at the head of his class for one recitation, 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 119 

or more, according to agreement. The chief weakness of 
this plan is that it can, of course, be used only for oral 
spelling work. 

3. Another form of reward that appeals to children 
in the elementary grades is to award stars to them for a 
certain degree of excellence. White stars may be put by 
the child's name for each perfect recitation; blue stars 
may be awarded for five perfect lessons ; red stars for ten 
perfect lessons ; and gold stars for twenty perfect lessons 
in succession. This device can be varied according to the 
teacher's desire and the situation in her own school. 

4. To write on the board, at the end of the week, the 
name of each child who has made a perfect record for the 
week is a good stimulus. 

5. Very closely akin to this is to have an honor roll for 
the month and to publish in the local paper or in the 
school paper the names of all children who have attained 
a certain record during the specified time. 

6. Another plan that is sometimes used with effect is 
the class honor badge made of aluminum or some other 
metal on which is written the words, ''Champion Speller." 
When a child has been the champion for a week he is 
permitted to wear the badge until the new champion is 
declared. 

OLD GAMES 

The devices thus far discussed have been such as 
to apply more particularly to the work with smaller 
children. Much of this work has appealed to the 
individual only. But as children grow older they 
become more gregarious. They form cliques, groups, 
gangs, and clans. They like to play and to fight 
in groups. To get the best individual effort from 



120 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

them, the appeal must be made to the group conscious- 
ness and spirit. Their games on the playgrounds 
are such as are played by one group matching its wit 
and strength against the wit and strength of the 
other group. The games of the school work should 
be classed according to the same principle. The 
games adapted to spelling which are suggested here 
do not call for a group against a group, but they all 
involve group activities. 

The children are lined up in one row for the game. 
The teacher gives each child two words. All who 
spell their two words correctly move one 
place to the next station. Those who do 
not spell both words correctly must wait one more 
turn before they are permitted to move. There are 
four stations in the game from the time the child 
starts till he gets back home, — his own desk. That 
is, each child must spell at least eight words. The 
poor speller spells more ; the more poorly he spells, 
the more turns he has. This is the great advantage 
of this game — practice is given where practice is 
needed. 

Into a box (a pool) are placed the words that are 

to be spelled. Each child takes his turn at fishing 

for a word. He catches one and hands it 

Fishing . . 

to the teacher. She pronounces it to him. 
If he writes it correctly, it becomes his fish; if 
not, it is the teacher's fish. It is saved and he 
is taught the word. The game is to see who can get 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 121 

the greatest number of fish. If the children are 
small, this game may be adapted and called "Jack 
Horner's Pie." 

The children all stand at their seats. One child 
is designated as Puss. The teacher gives out 
words to the children in their turn. Each ^ 
child spells his word if he can. If he Wants a 
misses, then Puss has a chance to spell it. ^^^®' 
If Puss succeeds, she takes his station and the one 
missing the word becomes the Puss. 

Very similar to "Puss Wants a Corner" is 
"Mushpot." The children form a ring. One child 
is put into the pot. Wlien some one 
misses a word, the one in the mushpot 
spells it. If he spells it, he takes a place in the 
ring and the one missing it takes the place in the 
mushpot. 

During the winter the snowball is a good device. 

Draw a picture of the snowball with a child pushing 

it. The words of the spelling lesson are „ , . 

„ Making 

written on pieces of paper. They are the Snow- 
divided among the children. When they ^^^ 
are spelled, then they are pinned on the snowball. 
This is called "rolling the ball." V^en all words 
are on it, then they begin to "unroll it" by taking 
the words off and spelling them as they come off. 
When they are all off, the ball is melted. 

This is a game that all children enjoy because they 
Hke to imagine themselves traveling. It is played 



122 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

by appointing a number of ticket agents to repre- 
sent the different cities that the children decide to 
Seeing the visit on that particular trip. Each agent 
World ig provided with a number of words 
which the children must spell before they can 
board the train or boat and get away from that 
city. This is another good game for a monthly 
review lesson. 

The best game of all, perhaps, for the children in 

the grammar grades is the game of baseball. It is 

played just like ordinary baseball. The 

Baseball . ^ , , , 

captains ot the teams choose batters. 
The teacher serves as scorer and umpire. The 
namqs are written down in the order chosen. Nine 
vertical columns are placed beside the names of 
each team. These represent innings. The teacher, or 
some one else, ^' pitches '^ words to the batter. If he 
hits three times he goes to first base and is succeeded 
by another batter. Each time that a man goes 
around the bases, he makes a score for his team. 
If he misses a word when it is given him, the catcher 
spells it. Then he is out. When three men are out, 
the other side takes the bat. 

SPELLING MATCHES 

No device for review has been found that excels 
the old-fashioned spelling matches. These are 
based on the group spirit and the instincts of rivalry 
and mastery. There are many forms that the match 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 123 

may take. We give below a few of the more 
common forms : 

Two captains choose the spellers. The teacher 
gives out the words. If any one misses a word, he 
sits down. The side that has a member r^^^ 
standing when all members of the other Common 
side have been seated is the champion. 
The weakness of this plan is that the poorest spellers 
are seated first. 

Sides are chosen just as in the common match. 
The teacher gives out the words just as in the other 
plan. The difference is that in this plan, The Catch 
when the word is missed, the teacher Match 
makes no indication to the class of that fact. If a 
pupil standing in line notes that the word is missed, 
he may spell it, and then all on the opposing side 
who have let it pass must be seated. 

In this plan, the game is to see who can make the 
highest score. No one is seated till the game is over. 
One hundred points or any other number The Score 
of points agreed upon may constitute a Match 
game. Under this form, the pupils on each side 
must spell the words that are given to them by the 
other side. If they spell each word that is given, 
they make one point ; if they fail to spell the word, 
the side that gave the word must spell it. This 
would give the side that gave and spelled the word 
one point for spelling it; and since the word was 
missed by the other side, the side which gave the 



124 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

word receives as many points as there are letters 
in the word. Illustration: John gives Jack the 
word '^ Constantinople/' Jack misses it. John 
then must spell his own word. If he does, he 
gets one point for spelling it and fourteen points 
because the other side missed it, making in all 
fifteen points. 

The game here is to see if one side can trip the 
other in the correct spelling of words that have the 
Homonym same sound but have a different meaning. 
Match This is a contest in points — ten making a 
game. If the child on one side misses, the next 
child on the giving side must spell the words. If 
these words are spelled correctly, the side gains two 
points or as many points as there are homonyms. 
If less than ten points are made by one side, then 
the side having the larger number of points at the 
close of the lesson is the winner. Illustration : — 
Mary says to Jack: "Jack, I have two rabbits. 
Mother says that is too many. I am going to sell 
them." Jack gets his words confused. Susan, who 
is next on Mary's side, takes up the task and spells 
them all correctly and shows that she knows which 
word belongs in which place. She thus gains three 
points for her side, not because she spelled them and 
applied them correctly, but because the other side 
lost them. 

The matches thus far described are oral matches, 
but oral matches, valuable as they are, have two 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 125 

great weaknesses : first, they do not give practice in 
the kind of speUing — written speUing — which is 
used in everyday Hfe ; second, the number written 
of words spelled is very Hmited in the oral ^^^ Match 
match. The child may fail to get the very word on 
which he should have practice. Written matches are, 
therefore, preferable in many ways. These may be 
arranged by rows in the schoolroom or by teams. 
The children may be sent to the board or they may 
spell at their seats. If they are sent to the board, 
their words can be seen better, errors quickly noted, 
individual weaknesses found, and words discovered 
by each child upon which practice is needed. The 
team that misspells the fewest words is winner of 
the match. 

Opponents at the board. The teacher starts the 
match by giving out a word. The child who first 
writes the word correctly may choose the written 
next two spellers and assign the word, ^y ^^^ 
The winner chooses the next spellers, and so on. 

The teacher announces a topic. The teams begin 
and write as many words as they can which relate 
to the topic for the period of time allowed. Topical 
When the time is up the number of words batches 
correctly spelled by the groups are counted. The 
side that has the largest number of correctly spelled 
words wins the match. The misspelled words are 
taken for a special drill lesson the next time. 

The same game may be slightly changed by 



126 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

taking a given letter, prefix, suffix, or other char- 
acteristic and forming words by using it. 

The teacher will need to remember that games are 
the dessert and not the regular meal of the school- 
room. They will spoil the appetite not only for the 
substantial part of the meal, but also^for the dessert 
itself if they are used overmuch or unwisely. 

Summary 

Practically all principles are put into operation through 
some sort of device. The principles of teaching spelling 
are no exception to this rule. In this chapter we have 
discussed a number of devices that classroom teachers 
have found helpful. These devices have been classified 
in the following manner : 

1. Picture Representations 

2. VisuaUzing 

3. Guesses 

4. Rewards 

5. Old Games 

6. Spelling Matches 

Questions and Exercises 

1. To what extent do the devices presented in this 
chapter "motivate'^ the study of spelling and to what 
extent do they ''sugar coaf it? Justify or condemn 
with the best arguments you can present. 

2. For what grades do you feel that each of theee 
devices is best suited? 

3. Try out in your school the various devices sug- 
gested. Which do you think will work with ^the greatest 
amount of satisfaction and why? 



DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 127 

4. Can you take these suggested devices and improve 
upon them so that they will better suit the situation as it 
exists in your school? (Try this. Your pupils will be 
able to give many good suggestions.) 

5. Of the forms of the written spelling match with 
which you are familiar, which one is best? Why? 



CHAPTER VII 

SOME QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY 
TEACHERS 

1. I have a child in my school that cannot learn to 
spelL What shall I do with him? 

This is a problem that several persons have 
The In- carefuUy investigated. The so-called in- 
corrigible corrigible spellers fall into four groups 
^^ ®' and may be considered in that way. 

First: There is the child that cannot learn. He 
does not have learning ability. The probability 
is that if he can learn anything he can learn to 
spell. If he cannot learn anything else, then you 
cannot expect to teach him spelling. He is men- 
tally deficient and should be referred to the county 
superintendent, and the superintendent should see 
that the child is placed in the kind of school that 
provides for his needs. Your school does not. These 
children are not really problems for the average 
teacher because there are so few of them in school. 
The teacher should be very careful not to suggest 
that a child does not have the ability to leam. Be 
convinced before making such a declaration. When 

128 



QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 129 

you do make it, make it to the proper persons in order 
to secure aid for the child. 

Second: There is the child who is physically 
handicapped. Four out of five among the children 
who have been carefully examined as "hopeless 
spellers " have proved to have defective eyesight. If 
the child has mental ability but is an exceptionally 
poor speller, you should have his eyes examined to 
see if they are not the seat of his difficulty. 

Third: There is the child who has been poorly 
taught. He is lacking i*n precision and in spelling 
pride. There is nothing wrong with his mind except 
that it is the victim of bad habits. Your task, then, 
becomes one of breaking up old habits and establish- 
ing new ones that are correct. There is a tendency 
on the part of teachers to " cast stones '^ at their prede- 
cessors by blaming all of the weaknesses of the 
children upon former teachers. If the teacher finds 
a weakness in a child, she should glory in the oppor- 
tunity that it provides for her to do a miracle 
rather than fret about the poor instruction that the 
child has formerly received. _, 

Fourth: There is the child who is suffering from 
poor instruction at present. The probability is 
that such children form by far the largest of the 
four groups of poor spellers. If the child speUs 
poorly, the probability is that the present teacher is 
failing to make the best use of materials and methods. 
The teacher should give her own work the closest 



130 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

investigation. Is she failing to interest the child? 
Is the work too difficult? Is the material suitable 
for him? Is he properly classified? Has he lost 
faith in himself? Just what are his limitations? 
These are questions that the teacher should answer 
before she acknowledges that the child is a ^^ hope- 
less speller.'^ 

2. My pupils can spell correctly when they really 
try hut in their written work they constantly make 
errors. They double the ivrong letter, omit the final 
letter, exchange the position of letters in the word, and 
make a variety of other inexcusable mistakes. Why do 
they make these mistakes and how can they be cor- 
rected f 

The greatest difficulty with these children is that 
they do not have a spelling conscience. They 
^ must come to feel that to miss a word is to 

Careless commit a real social offense. In order to 
^® ®' produce this feeling among these children 
social situations must be provided. They can 
be provided by tying up the school life with the real 
life of the community. Friendly letters, notes of 
invitation, orders for merchandise, correspondence 
with children in neighboring cities and states, and 
with children in foreign lands will provide many 
opportunities to awaken children to a realization 
of the necessity for correct spelling. But they must 
come to feel that it is as important that all the words 
in their letters to close personal friends shall be 



QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 131 

spelled correctly; as it would seem to them were the 
letter written to the President of the United States. 
Until they have developed this feeling, they have not 
developed a spelling conscience. They have a social 
conscience but not a spelling conscience. A spelling 
conscience will hurt them when they misspell a word, 
it matters not to whom or for what purpose that 
word is written. They must come to have a regard 
for the form of the word itself. 

Together with the development of a spelling 
conscience must come the development of a con- 
sciousness on the part of the child as to when a 
word is correctly spelled and when it is not. With 
some attention to this phase, the child will soon come 
to know when a word is correctly spelled and when 
it is misspelled. 

In order to train the children to notice errors, the 
teacher should require them to look over their 
written work and to mark all words that they know 
are incorrectly spelled and also those about which 
they are doubtful. Some acceptable symbol of mark- 
ing the words should be adopted by the school. 

After these doubtful and incorrectly spelled words 
have been marked, the pupil should look them up 
in the dictionary, put them down on his ^' black 
list," rewrite them correctly, and keep them for 
later drill. It is only by holding himself to strict 
account that the pupil can develop the consciousness 
of correctness or incorrectness in spelling. If he 



132 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

is not strict with himself he will spell a word one 
way one time and another way the next, so that it 
will not be long until he will not know when it is 
wrong and when it is right. 

In this situation, the problem is more serious than 
it would have been at the beginning. Here old 
habits must be broken and new ones formed. A 
careful study of the word, therefore, to see where the 
error occurs, a strong impression of the correct form, 
attentive repetition to stamp in the correct form and 
to break the incorrect bonds, and the determination 
of the teacher never to permit an exception until 
the new habit is firmly fixed, are the essential 
factors with which pupils and teacher must work 
in overcoming habits of incorrect spelling. 

3. What tests should he given in spelling? How 
should they he conducted? 

There are four types of tests, classified according 
to purpose. The preliminary test is a test given 
_, „ before the words are tausjht to the children 

The Pre- . ° 

liminary This type of test has two purposes. It 
®^* seeks to find what children need most in- 

struction and which words are most difficult to 
spell. The test should be given some time before 
the words are to be taught so that the impression 
of the words will have been erased before the time 
for the teaching. A record should be kept by the 
teacher of the percentage of the class who miss 
each word. This will reveal the relative difficulty 



QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 133 

of the words. She should also keep a record of the 
percentage of the words missed by each child. 
This will reveal the individual need of the children. 
This preliminary test is used most in connection 
with the Test-Drill Method discussed in the chapter 
on Methods. 

The test of teaching should come after the words 
for the day have been presented. It is the daily test 
of the teacher rather than of the child. -,, ^ ^ 

Ine lest 

The reader will recall the details of how of Teach- 
the new words were taught under the ^^ 
Teaching-Study Method. The last part of the 
lesson, according to that method, is to have the 
children write sentences in which the words taught 
occur. If these words are correctly spelled, then, 
the teacher may feel that the teaching is satis- 
factorily done. If the children do not spell the 
words correctly in the first written application, the 
teacher must blame herself instead of the children. 
She must see what she has failed to do in her effort 
to fix the order of the letters in the child's memory 
and must endeavor to correct the defect in her 
teaching. 

Review tests should be given from time to time — 
at the ends of weeks, months, semesters, years. 
The purpose of these reviews is to test the _ 
child's retentiveness, to recall the earlier Review 
impressions, to repair the gaps that time '^®^* 
has created. These review tests should usually be 



134 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

in the nature of gameS; contests, stunts. This 
will prevent the work from becoming a bore. The 
children will work to win the game, but the speUing 
results will be just as valuable as if the spelling it- 
self were the only goal. 

Standard tests have been devised for the purpose 
of comparing the spelling of children in one school 
system with that of those in another 
standard System or to compare the children of one 
^®^*^ school building with children in the same 

grade of another building in the same school system. 
Standards have been worked out by Ayres, Buck- 
ingham, Ashbaugh, and others. The teacher 
should famiharize herself with these. She should test 
her own children according to the directions given 
on the test. This will help her to compare the 
situation in her school with the standard. From 
the results of these tests she can get some idea of 
the limitations of her pupils. When these are re- 
vealed, she should study the pedagogical litera- 
ture dealing with spelling to find suggestions for 
correcting the limitations which the test has re- 
vealed. 

4. In our state each child above the third grade is 
required to have his own dictionary. The words for 
the spelling lesson are assigned and each child is 
expected to look up the words in the dictionary and 
write sentences showing their use. What do you think 
of the plan ? 



QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 135 

Eveiy child able to read it should have a diction- 
ary. It should assist the pupil when he wishes to use 
words of which he is not sure of the mean- _ , 

Use of 

ing or spelling. For a veiy young child to the Die- 
get from the dictionary the correct mean- *^®"^^y 
ing of a word is difficult. It is better for the 
teacher to explain the meaning, illustrate the use, 
and then ask the child to use it in sentences of his 
own. To require children to write dictionary defi- 
nitions of words as a part of the spelling lesson is a 
questionable procedure. 

The use of the dictionary should be carefully 
taught to the children so that they can consult it 
quickly when they have need. They should be en- 
couraged to use it. It has an important place in 
helping to build up a spelling conscience and a spell- 
ing consciousness. The children should be led to 
regard the dictionary as a friend in times of need 
and not as an instrument of torture. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. List the special difficulties which you personally 
have had in your efforts to become a good speller. What 
particular discussions in this book have applied to your 
own situation? 

2. List the principal difficulties which you have en- 
countered as a teacher of spelling. Which discussions 
have helped you most in their solution ? 

3. Are the particular questions discussed in this 
chapter the ones which you have most often asked? 



136 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

What other questions do you think should have been 
included ? 

4. List the questions on spelling which are still un- 
answered for you. Look carefully through the book to 
see if you cannot find a satisfactory answer. 

5. Do you wish to make a more extended study of 
some phase of the teaching of spelling ? If so, we refer 
you to the material suggested in the bibliography. ] ; 



PART III 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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2. Anderson, W. N. — The Determination of a Spelling Vocabulary 

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3. Ashbaugh, E. J. — A Spelling Scale of 3000 Common Words. 

University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, No. 43, 1918. 

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Russell Sage Foundation, 1914. 
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6. Ayres, L. P. — A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. 

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8. Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process. The Macmillan 

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13. Buckingham, B. R. — Spelling Ability; Its Measurement and 

Distribution. Teachers College Contributions to Education, 
No. 59. 

137 



138 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 139 

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i 



